Glutinous rice explained

Glutinous rice (Oryza sativa var. glutinosa; also called sticky rice, sweet rice or waxy rice) is a type of rice grown mainly in Southeast and East Asia, and the northeastern regions of South Asia, which has opaque grains, very low amylose content, and is especially sticky when cooked. It is widely consumed across Asia.

It is called glutinous (Latin: glūtinōsus)[1] in the sense of being glue-like or sticky, and not in the sense of containing gluten (which it does not). While often called sticky rice, it differs from non-glutinous strains of japonica rice, which also become sticky to some degree when cooked. There are numerous cultivars of glutinous rice, which include japonica, indica and tropical japonica strains.

History

The origin of glutinous rice is difficult to ascertain due to its long-standing cultural importance across a wide geographical region in Asia. It is most prevalent in the highland regions in Southeast Asia where it is a staple, while it also serves as occasional festival food in East Asia (mainly for desserts) and parts of South Asia. Glutinous rice is particularly associated with the upland agriculture of the Kra–Dai-speaking peoples of Mainland Southeast Asia. A region of around 200000sqkm that includes Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam is sometimes known as the "glutinous rice zone."[2] [3]

A 2002 genetic study discovered that the waxy mutation that disrupted amylose synthesis likely has a single origin. This is supported by the fact that all glutinous rice accessions in the study contain the same mutation. From comparisons of subsequent mutations in the different accessions in the study, it was found that the progenitor haplotype is highest among Southeast Asian glutinous rice cultivars, indicating strongly that the waxy mutation first arose in Southeast Asia, likely in the upland regions of Mainland Southeast Asia, before spreading to the rest of Asia.[2]

The waxy mutation is also known to have first arose in temperate japonica rice, where it is far more common, before spreading to tropical japonica rice (javanica) and indica cultivars via gene flow.[2] [4]

Cultivation

Glutinous rice is grown in Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Northeast India, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and the Philippines. An estimated 85% of Lao rice production is of this type.[5]

As of 2013, approximately 6,530 glutinous rice varieties were collected from five continents (Asia, South America, North America, Europe, and Africa) where glutinous rice is grown for preservation at the International Rice Genebank (IRGC).[6] The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has described Laos as a "collector's paradise". Laos has the largest biodiversity of sticky rice in the world. IRRI-trained collectors gathered more than 13,500 samples and 3,200 varieties from Laos alone.

Composition

Glutinous rice is distinguished from other types of rice by having no (or negligible amounts of) amylose and high amounts of amylopectin (the two components of starch). Amylopectin is responsible for the sticky quality of glutinous rice. The difference has been traced to a single mutation that farmers selected.[2] [7]

Like all types of rice, glutinous rice does not contain dietary gluten (i.e. does not contain glutenin and gliadin) and should be safe for gluten-free diets.[8]

Glutinous rice can be consumed milled or unmilled (that is, with the bran removed or not removed). Milled glutinous rice is white and fully opaque (unlike non-glutinous rice varieties, which are somewhat translucent when raw), whereas the bran can give unmilled glutinous rice a purple or black colour.[9] Black and purple glutinous rice are distinct strains of white glutinous rice. In developing Asia, there is little regulation, and some governments have issued advisories about toxic dyes being added to colour-adulterated rice. Both black and white glutinous rice can be cooked as discrete grains or ground into flour and cooked as a paste or gel.

Use in foods

See also: Rice cake. Glutinous rice is used in a wide variety of traditional dishes in different countries. They include the following:

Bangladesh

Especially in the eastern side (Chittagong, Cox's Bazaar, Sylhet areas) of Bangladesh, Glutinous rice is known as Binni chal (Bangla: বিন্নি চাল) or Binni choil (বিন্নি ছোইল) in Chittagong, both meaning "husked sticky rice" in Bangla. Both white and pink varieties are cultivated at many homestead farms. Unhusked sticky rice is called binni dhan. Boiled or steamed binni chal is called binni bhat. Served with a curry of fish or meat, Binni Bhat is a popular breakfast. Sometimes, it is eaten with a splash of palm sugar or cane sugar, salt, and coconut shreds alone. Binni dhan is also used to make khoi (popcorn-like puffed rice) and chida (bitten husked rice).

Many other sweet items, or Pitha made of binni chal are also popular: One pitha made of binni chal is "Atikka pitha". It is made with a mixture of cubed or small sliced coconut, white or brown sugar, (specifically date palm sugar), ripe bananas, milk, and binni chal wrapped in banana leaf and steamed. A similar dessert is enjoyed throughout Southeast Asian countries where it is known as Khao tom mat in Thai, Num ansom in Khmer, Lepet in Indonesian, Suman in Filipino, Bánh tét and Bánh chưng in Vietnamese, and Khao tom in Lao. Another delicacy is called "Binni chaler patishapta pitha, which is sprayed over a hot pan and then adding a mixture of grated coconut, palm sugar, and sometimes milk powder in the center to make a roll. One kind of rice porridge made of binni chal is called Modhu bhat, which literally means "honey rice". It is made by cooking water and binni chal for a long time, slightly blending it, and then topping it off with coconut shreds. This is also a delicacy known to the Chittagong area.

Cambodia

Glutinous rice is known as bay damnaeb (Central Khmer: បាយដំណើប) in Khmer.

In Cambodian cuisine, glutinous rice is primarily used for desserts[10] and is an essential ingredient for most sweet dishes, such as ansom chek, kralan, and num ple aiy.[11]

China

In the Chinese language, glutinous rice is known as nuòmǐ (糯米) or chu̍t-bí (秫米) in Hokkien.

Glutinous rice is also often ground to make glutinous rice flour. This flour is made into niangao and sweet-filled dumplings tangyuan, both of which are commonly eaten at Chinese New Year. It is also used as a thickener and for baking.

Glutinous rice or glutinous rice flour are both used in many Chinese bakery products and in many varieties of dim sum. They produce a flexible, resilient dough, which can take on the flavours of whatever other ingredients are added to it. Cooking usually consists of steaming or boiling, sometimes followed by pan-frying or deep-frying.

Sweet glutinous rice is eaten with red bean paste.

Nuòmǐ fàn (糯米飯), is steamed glutinous rice usually cooked with Chinese sausage, chopped Chinese mushrooms, chopped barbecued pork, and optionally dried shrimp or scallop (the recipe varies depending on the cook's preference).

Zongzi (Traditional Chinese 糭子/糉子, Simplified Chinese 粽子) is a dumpling consisting of glutinous rice and sweet or savoury fillings wrapped in large flat leaves (usually bamboo), which is then boiled or steamed. It is especially eaten during the Dragon Boat Festival but may be eaten at any time of the year. It is popular as an easily transported snack, or a meal to consume while travelling. It is a common food among Chinese in Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia.

Cifangao (Traditional Chinese 糍飯糕, Simplified Chinese 糍饭糕) is a popular breakfast food originating in Eastern China consisting of cooked glutinous rice compressed into squares or rectangles, and then deep-fried.[12] Additional seasoning and ingredients such as beans, zha cai, and sesame seeds may be added to the rice for added flavour. It has a similar appearance and external texture to hash browns.

Cifantuan (Traditional Chinese 糍飯糰, Simplified Chinese 糍饭团) is another breakfast food consisting of a piece of youtiao tightly wrapped in cooked glutinous rice, with or without additional seasoning ingredients. Japanese onigiri resembles this Chinese food.

Lo mai gai (糯米雞) is a dim sum dish consisting of glutinous rice with chicken in a lotus-leaf wrap, which is then steamed. It is served as a dim sum dish in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia.

Ba bao fan (八寶飯), or "eight treasure rice", is a dessert made from glutinous rice, steamed and mixed with lard, sugar, and eight kinds of fruits or nuts. It can also be eaten as the main course.

A distinctive feature of the Cuisine of the Hakka people of Southern China is its variety of steamed snack-type buns, dumplings, and patties made with a dough of coarsely ground rice, or ban. Collectively known as "rice snacks", some kinds are filled with various salty or sweet ingredients.

Common examples of rice snacks made with ban from glutinous or sticky rice and non-glutinous rice include Aiban (mugwort patty), Caibao (yam bean bun), Ziba (sticky rice balls) and Bantiao (Mianpaban or flat rice noodles).

Aiban encompasses several varieties of steamed patties and dumplings of various shapes and sizes, consisting of an outer layer made of glutinous ban dough filled with salty or sweet ingredients. It gets its name from the aromatic ai grass (mugwort), which after being dried, powdered, and mixed with the ban, gives the dough a green colour and an intriguing tea-like taste. Typical salty fillings include ground pork, mushrooms, and shredded white turnips. The most common sweet filling is made with red beans.

Caibao is a generic term for all types of steamed buns with various sorts of filling. Hakka-style caibao are distinctive in that the enclosing skin is made with glutinous rice dough in place of wheat flour dough. Besides ground pork, mushrooms, and shredded turnips, fillings may include ingredients such as dried shrimp and dry fried-shallot flakes.

Ziba is glutinous rice dough that, after steaming in a big container, is mashed into a sticky, putty-like mass from which small patties are formed and coated with a layer of sugary peanut powder. It has no filling.

Indonesia

Glutinous rice is known as beras ketan or simply ketan in Java and most of Indonesia, and pulut in Sumatra. It is widely used as an ingredient for a wide variety of sweet, savoury, or fermented snacks. Glutinous rice is used as either hulled grains or milled into flour. It is usually mixed with santan, meaning coconut milk in Indonesian, along with a bit of salt to add some taste. Glutinous rice is rarely eaten as a staple. One example is lemang, which is glutinous rice and coconut milk cooked in bamboo stems lined by banana leaves. Glutinous rice is also sometimes used in a mix with normal rice in rice dishes such as nasi tumpeng or nasi tim. It is widely used during the Lebaran seasons as traditional food. It is also used in the production of alcoholic beverages such as tuak and brem bali.

Savoury snacks

Sweet snacks

Fermented snacks

Crackers

In addition, glutinous rice dishes adapted from other cultures are just as easily available. Examples include kue moci (mochi, Japanese) and bacang (zongzi, Chinese).

Japan

In Japan, glutinous rice is known as mochigome (Japanese: もち米). It is used in traditional dishes such as sekihan also known as Red bean rice, okowa, and ohagi. It may also be ground into mochiko (もち粉), a rice flour, used to make mochi (もち), a kind of sweet rice cake. Mochi is traditionally prepared for the Japanese New Year, but can also be eaten year-round. Many different types of mochi exist from different regions, and they are normally flavoured with traditional ingredients such as red beans, water chestnuts, green tea, and pickled cherry flowers. See also Japanese rice.

Korea

In Korea, glutinous rice is called chapssal, and its characteristic stickiness is called chalgi . Cooked rice made of glutinous rice is called chalbap and rice cakes are called chalddeok or chapssalddeok . Chalbap is used as stuffing in samgyetang .

Laos

Along the Greater Mekong Sub-region, the Lao have been cultivating glutinous rice for approximately 4000 – 6000 years. Glutinous rice is the national dish of Laos.[13] In Laos, a tiny landlocked nation with a population of approximately 6 million, per-capita sticky rice consumption is the highest on earth at 171 kg or 377 pounds per year.[14] [15] Sticky rice is deeply ingrained in the culture, religious tradition, and national identity of Laos (see Lao cuisine). Sticky rice is considered the essence of what it means to be Lao. It has been said that no matter where they are in the world, sticky rice will always be the glue that holds the Lao communities together, connecting them to their culture and to Laos.[16] Lao people often identify themselves as the "children of sticky rice"[17] and if they did not eat sticky rice, they would not be Lao.[18] [19]

Sticky rice is known as khao niao (Lao:ເຂົ້າໜຽວ): khao means rice, and niao means sticky. It is cooked by soaking for several hours and then steaming in a bamboo basket or houat (Lao: ຫວດ). After that, it should be turned out on a clean surface and kneaded with a wooden paddle to release the steam; this results in rice balls that will stick to themselves but not to fingers. The large rice ball is kept in a small basket made of bamboo or thip khao (Lao:ຕິບເຂົ້າ). The rice is sticky but dry, rather than wet and gummy-like non-glutinous varieties. Laotians consume glutinous rice as part of their main diet; they also use toasted glutinous rice khao khoua (Lao:ເຂົ້າຄົ່ວ) to add a nut-like flavour to many dishes. A popular Lao meal is a combination of larb (Lao:ລາບ), Lao grilled chicken ping gai (Lao:ປີ້ງໄກ່), spicy green papaya salad dish known as tam mak hoong (Lao:ຕຳໝາກຫູ່ງ), and sticky rice (khao niao).

Lao sticky rice pancakes with egg coating, an ancient Laotian cooking method of grilling glutinous rice or sticky rice over an open fire.

Khao niao is also used as an ingredient in desserts. Khao niao mixed with coconut milk can be served with ripened mango or durian.

Malaysia

In Malaysia, glutinous rice is known as pulut. It is usually mixed with santan (coconut milk) along with a bit of salt to add some taste. It is widely used during the Raya festive seasons as traditional food which is shared with certain parts of Indonesia, such as:

Myanmar

Glutinous rice, called kao hnyin, is very popular in Myanmar (also known as Burma).

Nepal

In Nepal, Latte/Chamre is a popular dish made from glutinous rice during Teej festival, the greatest festival of Nepalese women.

Northeastern India

Sticky rice called bora saul is the core component of indigenous Assamese sweets, snacks, and breakfast. This rice is widely used in the traditional sweets of Assam, which are very different from the traditional sweets of India whose basic component is milk.

Such traditional sweets in Assam are Pitha (Narikolor pitha, Til pitha, Ghila pitha, Tel pitha, Keteli pitha, Sunga pitha, Sunga saul etc.). Also, its powder form is used as breakfast or other light meals directly with milk. They are called Pitha guri (if the powder was done without frying the rice, by just crushing it after soaking) or Handoh guri (if rice is dry fried first, and then crushed).

The soaked rice is also cooked with no added water inside a special kind of bamboo (called sunga saul bnaah). This meal is called sunga saul.

During religious ceremonies, indigenous Assamese communities make Mithoi (Kesa mithoi and Poka mithoi) using Gnud with it. Sometimes Bhog, Payokh are also made from it using milk and sugar with it.

Different indigenous Assamese communities make rice beer from sticky rice, preferring it over other varieties of rice for the sweeter and more alcoholic result. This rice beer is also offered to their gods and ancestors (demi-gods). Rice cooked with it is also taken directly as lunch or dinner on rare occasions.Similarly, other indigenous communities from NE India use sticky rice in various forms similar to the native Assamese style in their cuisine.

Philippines

In the Philippines, glutinous rice is known as malagkit in Tagalog or pilit in Visayan, among other names such as diket in Ilocano. Both mean "sticky". The most common way glutinous rice is prepared in the Philippines is by soaking uncooked glutinous rice in water or coconut milk (usually overnight) and then grinding it into a thick paste (traditionally with stone mills). This produces a rich and smooth viscous rice dough known as galapóng, which is the basis for numerous rice cakes in the Philippines. However, in modern preparation methods, galapong is sometimes made directly from dry glutinous rice flour (or from commercial Japanese mochiko), with poorer-quality results.

Galapong was traditionally allowed to ferment, which is still required for certain dishes. A small amount of starter culture of microorganisms (tapay or bubod) or palm wine (tubâ) may be traditionally added to rice being soaked to hasten the fermentation. These can be substituted with yeast or baking soda in modern versions.[20] [21] Other versions of galapong may also be treated with wood ash lye.

Aside from the numerous white and red glutinous rice cultivars, the most widely used glutinous rice heirloom cultivars in the Philippines are tapol rice, which is milky white in colour, and pirurutong rice, which ranges in colour from black to purple to reddish brown.[22] However both varieties are expensive and becoming increasingly rare, thus some Filipino recipes nowadays substitute it with dyed regular glutinous rice or infuse purple yam (ube) to achieve the same colouration.[23] [24] [25]

Dessert delicacies in the Philippines are known as kakanin (from kanin, "prepared rice"). These were originally made primarily from rice, but in recent centuries, the term has come to encompass dishes made from other types of flour, including corn flour (masa), cassava, wheat, and so on. Glutinous rice figures prominently in two main subtypes of kakanin: the puto (steamed rice cakes), and the bibingka (baked rice cakes). Both largely utilize glutinous rice galapong. A notable variant of puto is puto bumbong, which is made with pirurutong.

Other kakanin that use glutinous rice include suman, biko, and sapin-sapin among others. There is also a special class of boiled galapong dishes like palitaw, moche, mache, and masi. Fried galapong is also used to make various types of buchi, which are the local Chinese-Filipino versions of jian dui. They are also used to make puso, which are boiled rice cakes in woven leaf pouches.

Aside from kakanin, glutinous rice is also used in traditional Filipino rice gruels or porridges known as lugaw. They include both savory versions like arroz caldo or goto which are similar to Chinese-style congee; and dessert versions like champorado, binignit, and ginataang mais.

Thailand

In Thailand, glutinous rice is known as khao niao (Thai: ข้าวเหนียว; lit. 'sticky rice') in central Thailand and Isan, and as khao nueng (Thai: ข้าวนึ่ง; lit. 'steamed rice') in northern Thailand.[26] Sticky rice at the table is typically served individually in a small woven basket (Thai: กระติบข้าว,).

Vietnam

See main article: Xôi. Glutinous rice is called Vietnamese: gạo nếp in Vietnamese. The term for the cooked rice is called xôi. Dishes made from glutinous rice in Vietnam are typically served as desserts or side dishes, but some can be served as main dishes. There is a wide array of glutinous rice dishes in Vietnamese cuisine, the majority of them can be categorized as follows:

a square-shaped, boiled glutinous rice dumpling filled with pork and mung bean paste, wrapped in a dong leaf, usually eaten in Vietnamese New Year.

a northern Vietnamese dish of deep-fried glutinous rice balls covered with sesame, scented with a jasmine flower essence, filled with either sweetened mung bean paste (the sweet version) or chopped meat and mushrooms (the savoury version).

a southern Vietnamese version of bánh rán. Unlike bánh rán, bánh cam is coated with a layer of sugary liquid and has no jasmine essence.

made from glutinous rice mixed with a small portion of ordinary rice flour (the ratio of glutinous rice flour to ordinary rice flour is typically 9:1 or 8:2) filled with sugarcane rock candy.

the cake is made from young glutinous rice seeds. The seeds are put into a water pot, stirred on fire, and juice extracted from the pomelo flower is added. The filling is made from steamed mung bean, scraped coconut, sweetened pumpkin, and sweetened lotus seeds.

balls made from mung bean paste in a shell made of glutinous rice flour; served in a thick clear or brown liquid made of water, sugar, and grated ginger root.

Glutinous rice balls cooked and mixed with yeast, served in a small amount of rice wine.

Glutinous rice can also be fermented to make Vietnamese alcoholic beverages, such as rượu nếp, rượu cần and rượu đế.

Beverages

Non-food uses

In construction, glutinous rice is a component of sticky rice mortar for use in masonry. Chemical tests have confirmed that this is true for the Great Wall of China and the city walls of Xi'an.[41] [42] In Assam also, this rice was used for building palaces during Ahom rule.

Glutinous rice starch may also be used to create wheatpaste, an adhesive material.[43]

In Vietnam, glutinous rice is made into flour and used to make To he, a figurine.

See also

Notes and References

  1. "glutinous, a." Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition. 1989. Online edition. Retrieved 20 February 2008.
  2. Olsen . Kenneth M . Purugganan . Michael D . Molecular Evidence on the Origin and Evolution of Glutinous Rice . Genetics . 1 October 2002 . 162 . 2 . 941–950 . 10.1093/genetics/162.2.941. 12399401 . 1462305 .
  3. Golomb . Louis . The Origin, Spread and Persistence of Glutinous Rice as a Staple Crop in Mainland Southeast Asia . Journal of Southeast Asian Studies . March 1976 . 7 . 1 . 1–15 . 10.1017/S0022463400010237. 163052600 .
  4. Yamanaka . Shinsuke . Nakamura . Ikuo . Watanabe . Kazuo N. . Sato . Yo-Ichiro . Identification of SNPs in the waxy gene among glutinous rice cultivars and their evolutionary significance during the domestication process of rice . Theoretical and Applied Genetics . May 2004 . 108 . 7 . 1200–1204 . 10.1007/s00122-003-1564-x. 14740088 . 5681108 .
  5. Web site: Laos at the crossroads . Isabelle . Delforge . 2001 . 15 April 2003 . 5 September 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080905133310/http://www.grain.org/publications/seed-01-6-2-en.cfm . live .
  6. Sattaka. Patcha. 27 December 2016. Geographical Distribution of Glutinous Rice in the Greater Mekong Sub-region. Journal of Mekong Societies. en. 12. 3. 27–48. 2697-6056. 10 June 2021. 8 November 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211108105756/https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/mekongjournal/article/view/73311. live.
  7. Kenneth M. Olsen and Michael D. Purugganan . Molecular evidence on the origin and evolution of glutinous rice . Genetics . 162 . 941–950 . 1 October 2002 . 2 . 10.1093/genetics/162.2.941 . 12399401 . 1462305 . 11 October 2006 . 14 May 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100514031615/http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/162/2/941 . live .
  8. Book: Nguyễn, Xuân Hiʾên . 2001 . Glutinous-Rice-Eating Tradition in Vietnam and Elsewhere . Bangkok . White Lotus Press . 13 . 9789747534238.
  9. Book: Kenneth F. Kiple, Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas . The Cambridge World History of Food . 143.
  10. Book: Edelstein, Sari . 2010 . Food, Cuisine, And Cultural Competency For Culinary, Hospitality, And Nutrition Professionals . . 247 . 978-0-763-75965-0.
  11. The Sweet Tastes of Cambodia . 3 May 2013 . Asia Life Magazine . 26 May 2013 . 20 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210420134337/https://www.asialifemagazine.com/cambodia/the-sweet-tastes-of-cambodia/ . dead .
  12. [:zh-tw:粢饭糕|粢饭糕]
  13. Web site: A Taste of Sticky Rice, Laos' National Dish. 10 June 2021. Smithsonian Magazine. en. 5 October 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211005194946/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/a-taste-of-sticky-rice-laos-national-dish-136291/. live.
  14. Web site: Rice Landscape Analysis – Feasibility of and opportunities for rice fortification in the Lao People's Democratic Republic World Food Programme. 10 June 2021. www.wfp.org. January 2017. 7 November 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211107125904/https://www.wfp.org/publications/rice-landscape-analysis-feasibility-and-opportunities-rice-fortification-lao-peoples-democra. live.
  15. Book: Bestari, Njoman George. Lao PDR: An Evaluation Synthesis On Rice. 1 September 2006. ADB Independent Evaluation Department. en. 10 June 2021. 10 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210610192623/https://www.adb.org/documents/lao-pdr-evaluation-synthesis-rice. live.
  16. Web site: Laos at the crossroads. 10 June 2021. grain.org. en. 7 November 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211107125905/https://grain.org/article/entries/315-laos-at-the-crossroads. live.
  17. Web site: Gibbs. JC. 18 May 2018. FORKLIFE: Children of Sticky Rice. 10 June 2021. Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. en-US. 8 November 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211108212747/https://folklife.si.edu/magazine/forklife-children-of-sticky-rice. live.
  18. Book: M, J.M Schiller M.B Chanphengxay B Linquist S Appo Rao Stuart-Fox. Population diversity and rice in Laos. 1 January 2006. International Rice Research Institute. 828756582. 10 June 2021. 13 February 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230213095055/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/828756582. live.
  19. Web site: Asia brief: Filling the rice basket in Lao PDR, partnership results – OD Mekong Datahub. 10 June 2021. data.opendevelopmentmekong.net. en. 10 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210610192707/https://data.opendevelopmentmekong.net/library_record/asia-brief-filling-the-rice-basket-in-lao-pdr-partnership-results. live.
  20. Web site: Nocheseda . Elmer . The Invention of Happiness . Manila Speak . 8 December 2018 . 8 August 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200808025456/http://www.manilaspeak.com/cool/the-invention-of-happiness . live .
  21. Book: Amy Besa & Romy Dorotan. Memories of Philippine Kitchens. Abrams. 2014. 9781613128084.
  22. Web site: Pirurutong at Tapol / Purple and White Glutinous Rice . Market Manila . 27 November 2007 . 6 July 2021 . 30 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210430102005/http://www.marketmanila.com/archives/pirurutong-at-tapol-purple-and-white-glutinous-rice . live .
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This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Glutinous rice".

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