Treatment and management of COVID-19 explained

The treatment and management of COVID-19 combines both supportive care, which includes treatment to relieve symptoms, fluid therapy, oxygen support as needed,[1] [2] [3] and a growing list of approved medications. Highly effective vaccines have reduced mortality related to SARS-CoV-2; however, for those awaiting vaccination, as well as for the estimated millions of immunocompromised persons who are unlikely to respond robustly to vaccination, treatment remains important.[4] Some people may experience persistent symptoms or disability after recovery from the infection, known as long COVID, but there is still limited information on the best management and rehabilitation for this condition.

Most cases of COVID-19 are mild. In these, supportive care includes medication such as paracetamol or NSAIDs to relieve symptoms (fever, body aches, cough), proper intake of fluids, rest, and nasal breathing.[5] [6] [7] Good personal hygiene and a healthy diet are also recommended.[8] As of April 2020 the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended that those who suspect they are carrying the virus isolate themselves at home and wear a face mask.[9] As of November 2020 use of the glucocorticoid dexamethasone had been strongly recommended in those severe cases treated in hospital with low oxygen levels, to reduce the risk of death.[10] [11] [12] Noninvasive ventilation and, ultimately, admission to an intensive care unit for mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used to address respiratory failure, but its benefits are still under consideration.[13] [14] Some of the cases of severe disease course are caused by systemic hyper-inflammation, the so-called cytokine storm.[15]

Although several medications have been approved in different countries as of April 2022, not all countries have these medications. Patients with mild to moderate symptoms who are in the risk groups can take nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (marketed as Paxlovid) or remdesivir, either of which reduces the risk of serious illness or hospitalization.[16] In the US, the Biden Administration COVID-19 action plan includes the Test to Treat initiative, where people can go to a pharmacy, take a COVID test, and immediately receive free Paxlovid if they test positive.[17]

Several experimental treatments are being actively studied in clinical trials.[18] These include the antivirals molnupiravir (developed by Merck),[19] and nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (developed by Pfizer).[20] [21] Others were thought to be promising early in the pandemic, such as hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir/ritonavir, but later research found them to be ineffective or even harmful,[22] like fluvoxamine, a cheap and widely available antidepressant;[23] As of December 2020, there was not enough high-quality evidence to recommend so-called early treatment.[24] In December 2020, two monoclonal antibody-based therapies were available in the United States, for early use in cases thought to be at high risk of progression to severe disease.[25] The antiviral remdesivir has been available in the U.S., Canada, Australia, and several other countries, with varying restrictions; however, it is not recommended for people needing mechanical ventilation, and has been discouraged altogether by the World Health Organization (WHO),[26] due to limited evidence of its efficacy.[22] In November 2021, the UK approved the use of molnupiravir as a COVID treatment for vulnerable patients recently diagnosed with the disease.[27]

The WHO, the Chinese National Health Commission, the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, and the United States' National Institutes of Health, among other bodies and agencies worldwide, have all published recommendations and guidelines for taking care of people with COVID-19.[28] [29] [30] [31] As of 2020 Intensivists and pulmonologists in the U.S. have compiled treatment recommendations from various agencies into a free resource, the IBCC.[32] [33]

General support

Taking over-the-counter drugs such as paracetamol or ibuprofen, drinking fluids, taking honey to ease a cough, and resting may help alleviate symptoms.[34] [35] [36] [37]

Medications

See also: COVID-19 drug repurposing research and COVID-19 drug development.

In the early months of the pandemic, many ICU doctors faced with the virus ventured to prescribe conjectured treatments because of the unprecedented circumstances.[38] However, the standard of care for most intractable illnesses is that, as it develops over years, doctors build a body of research that tests various theories, compares and contrasts dosages, and measures one drug's power against another.

Antiviral development for SARS-CoV-2 has been disappointing.[39] In January 2020, research into potential treatments started,[40] and several antiviral drugs were in clinical trials.[41] [42] In February 2020 with 'no known effective' treatments, the WHO recommended volunteers take part in trials of the effectiveness and safety of potential treatments.[43] Antiviral medications were tried in people with severe disease.As of March 2020 several medications were already approved for other uses or were already in advanced testing.[44] As of April 2020 trials were investigating whether existing medications could be used effectively against the body's immune reaction to SARS-CoV-2 infection.[45] As of May 2020 several antiviral drugs were under investigation for COVID-19, though none had been shown to be clearly effective on mortality in published randomized controlled trials.[46]

As of February 2021, in the European Union, the use of dexamethasone and remdesivir were authorized.[47] Despite being controversial at the beginning of the pandemic in 2020,[48] corticosteroids like dexamethasone showed clinical benefit in treating COVID-19, once randomized controlled trials were performed in 2020.[49] [50] As of February 2021, the monoclonal antibody therapies bamlanivimab/etesevimab and casirivimab/imdevimab were found to reduce the number of hospitalizations, emergency room visits, and deaths.[51] [52] and both combination drugs received emergency use authorization by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

As of February 2021 there were Emergency Use Authorizations for baricitinib, bamlanivimab, bamlanivimab/etesevimab, and casirivimab/imdevimab.[53]

As of July 2021, outpatient drugs budesonide and tocilizumab showed promising results in some patients but remained under investigation.[54] [55] [56] As of July 2021, a large number of drugs had been considered for treating COVID-19 patients.[57] As of November 2022, there was moderate-certainty evidence suggesting that dexamethasone, and systemic corticosteroids in general, probably cause a slight reduction in all-cause mortality (up to 30 days) in hospitalized patients with COVID‐19, the evidence was very uncertain at 120 days.[58]

In March 2022, the BBC wrote, "There are now many drugs that target the virus or our body in different ways: anti-inflammatory drugs that stop our immune system overreacting with deadly consequences, anti-viral drugs that make it harder for the coronavirus to replicate inside the body and antibody therapies that mimic our own immune system to attack the virus"[59]

The WHO recommendations on which medications should or should not be used to treat Covid-19 are continuously updated. As of July 2022, WHO strongly recommended for non-severe cases nirmatrelvir and ritonavir, and recommended conditionally Molnupiravir, Sotrovimab and Remdesivir. For severe cases WHO strongly recommended corticosteroids, IL-6 receptor blockers or Baricitinib and conditionally recommended casirivimab and imdevimab.[60]

For patients in a life-threatening stage of the illness and in the presence of poor prognostic predictors, early antiviral treatment is essential.[61]

Ineffective

As of 2020, several treatments had been investigated and found to be ineffective or unsafe, and are thus were not recommended for use; these include baloxavir marboxil, lopinavir/ritonavir, ruxolitinib, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, interferon β-1a, and colchicine. As of 2021, favipiravir and nafamostat had shown mixed results but were still in clinical trials in some countries.[62] [63] [64]

During the early part of 2020 convalescent plasma, plasma from persons who recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection, was frequently used with anecdotal successes in reports and small case series.[65] However subsequent trials found no consistent evidence of benefit.[66] [67] However, conflicting outcomes from trials could be understood by noting that they transfused insufficient therapeutic doses of CCP.[68]

As of February 2021, in the United States, only remdesivir had FDA approval for certain COVID-19 patients,[69] and while early research had suggested a benefit in preventing death and shortening illness duration, this was not borne out by subsequent trials.

On 16 April 2021, the FDA revoked the emergency use authorization (EUA) for the investigational monoclonal antibody therapy bamlanivimab, when administered alone, to be used for the treatment of mild-to-moderate COVID-19 in adults and certain pediatric patients.[70]

As of July 2022, WHO strongly recommended against treating non-severe cases with convalescent plasma, hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir-ritonavir or colchicine and recommended conditionally against corticosteroids or ivermectin or fluvoxamine or nirmatrelvir and ritonavirWHO also strongly recommended against treating severe cases with hydroxychloroquine or lopinavir-ritonavir or Baricitinib and conditionally recommended against ruxolitinib or tofacitinib, ivermectin or convalescent plasma.[60]

As of September 2022, oral treatment of outpatients with metformin, ivermectin, and fluvoxamine were found to be ineffective in a large randomized, controlled trial.[71]

Adjuvant anticoagulation

In general there is no good evidence that anticoagulants have any benefit in the treatment of COVID-19, other than poor quality evidence suggesting a possible effect on all-cause mortality.[72]

Respiratory support

People seriously ill with COVID-19 may require respiratory support. Depending on the severity, oxygen therapy, mechanical ventilation, and intravenous fluids may be required.[73]

Mechanical ventilation

Most cases of COVID-19 are not severe enough to require mechanical ventilation or alternatives, but a percentage of cases are.[74] [75] Some of the people acutely ill with COVID-19 experience deterioration of their lungs and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and/or respiratory failure. Due to the high risk of death, urgent respiratory support including mechanical ventilation is often required in these people.[76] Mechanical ventilation becomes more complex as ARDS develops in COVID-19 and oxygenation becomes increasingly difficult.[77]

People who undergo mechanical ventilation are at risk of ventilator-associated lung injury or of worsening an existing lung injury, this damage is called ventilatory-induced lung injury (VILI). The mechanism of this injury is thought to be due to trauma to the lungs caused by aerated regions of the lungs being over swollen (overdistension of the aerated alveoli) and atelectrauma (force on the alveolar that could lead to lung collapse).

Ventilators capable of pressure control modes and optimal PEEP are needed to maximise oxygen delivery while minimising the risk of ventilator-associated lung injury and pneumothorax.[78] [79] An approach to enable the person to breath spontaneously while being mechanically ventilated by adjusting the level of sedation and the respirator settings has been suggested, with the goal of reducing atrophy of the diaphragm.[80] There is no clear evidence to suggest that enabling spontaneous breathing early while being mechanically ventilated is either beneficial or detrimental for the person's recovery.

Other approaches to mechanical ventilation including avoiding intubation using a high flow nasal cannula or bi-level positive airway pressure are under investigation, however, the effectiveness of these approaches compared to intubation are not clear.[81] Some doctors prefer staying with invasive mechanical ventilation when available because this technique limits the spread of aerosol particles compared to a high flow nasal cannula.

The administration of inhaled nitric oxide to people being ventilated is not recommended, and evidence around this practice is weak.[82]

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

See main article: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is an artificial lung technology that has been used since the 1980s to treat respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome when conventional mechanical ventilation fails. In this complex procedure, blood is removed from the body via large cannulae, moved through a membrane oxygenator that performs the lung functions of oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal, and then returned to the body. The Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO) maintains a registry of outcomes for this technology, and as of September 2020 it has been used in less than 120,000 patients over 435 ECMO centers worldwide with 40% mortality for adult respiratory patients.[83]

Initial use of ECMO in COVID-19 patients from China early in the pandemic suggested poor outcomes, with less than 90% mortality.[84] In March 2020, the ELSO registry began collecting data on the worldwide use of ECMO for patients with COVID-19 and reporting this data on the ELSO website in real time. In September 2020, the outcomes of 1,035 COVID-19 patients supported with ECMO from 213 experienced centers in 36 different countries were published in The Lancet, and demonstrated 38% mortality, which is similar to many other respiratory diseases treated with ECMO. The mortality is also similar to the 35% mortality seen in the EOLIA trial, the largest randomized controlled trial for ECMO in ARDS.[85] This registry based, multi-center, multi-country data provide provisional support for the use of ECMO for COVID-19 associated acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Given that this is a complex technology that can be resource intense, guidelines exist for the use of ECMO during the COVID-19 pandemic.[86] [87] [88]

Psychological support

See also: Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Individuals may experience distress from quarantine, travel restrictions, side effects of treatment, or fear of the infection itself. To address these concerns, the National Health Commission of China published a national guideline for psychological crisis intervention on 27 January 2020.[89] [90]

According to the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support, the pandemic produced long-term consequences. Deterioration of social networks and economies, survivor stigma, anger and aggression, and mistrust of official information are long-term consequences.[91]

In April 2020 The Lancet published a 14-page call for action focusing on the UK and stated conditions were such that a range of mental health issues was likely to become more common. BBC quoted Rory O'Connor in saying, "Increased social isolation, loneliness, health anxiety, stress, and an economic downturn are a perfect storm to harm people's mental health and wellbeing."[92] [93]

Special populations

Concurrent treatment of other conditions

Early in the pandemic, theoretical concerns were raised about ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers. However, later research in March 2020 found no evidence to justify stopping these medications in people who take them for conditions such as high blood pressure.[30] [94] [95] [96] One study from April 2020 found that people with COVID-19 and hypertension had lower all-cause mortality when on these medications.[97] Similar concerns were raised about non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen; these were likewise not borne out, and NSAIDs may both be used to relieve symptoms of COVID-19 and continue to be used by people who take them for other conditions.[98]

People who use topical or systemic corticosteroids for respiratory conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease should continue taking them as prescribed even if they contract COVID-19.[49]

The principal for obstetric management of COVID-19 include rapid detection, isolation, and testing, profound preventive measures, regular monitoring of fetus as well as of uterine contractions, peculiar case-to-case delivery planning based on severity of symptoms, and appropriate post-natal measures for preventing infection.[99]

Patients with simultaneous Influenza infection

Patients with simultaneous SARS CoV2 and Influenza infection are more than twice as likely to die and more than four times as likely to need ventilation as patients with only COVID. It is recommended that patients admitted to hospital with COVID should be routinely tested to see if they also have Influenza. The public are advised to get vaccinated against both Influenza and COVID.[100]

Epidemiology

Severe cases are most common in older adults (those older than 60 years, and especially those older than 80 years).[101] Many developed countries do not have enough hospital beds per capita, which limits a health system's capacity to handle a sudden spike in the number of COVID-19 cases severe enough to require hospitalisation.[102] This limited capacity is a significant driver behind calls to flatten the curve. One study in China found 5% were admitted to intensive care units, 2.3% needed mechanical support of ventilation, and 1.4% died. In China, approximately 30% of people in hospital with COVID-19 are eventually admitted to ICU.[103]

External links

Treatment guidelines

Notes and References

  1. Fisher D, Heymann D . Q&A: The novel coronavirus outbreak causing COVID-19 . BMC Medicine . 18 . 1 . 57 . February 2020 . 32106852 . 7047369 . 10.1186/s12916-020-01533-w . free . doi .
  2. Liu K, Fang YY, Deng Y, Liu W, Wang MF, Ma JP, Xiao W, Wang YN, Zhong MH, Li CH, Li GC, Liu HG . Clinical characteristics of novel coronavirus cases in tertiary hospitals in Hubei Province . Chinese Medical Journal . 133 . 9 . 1025–1031 . May 2020 . 32044814 . 7147277 . 10.1097/CM9.0000000000000744 . free . doi .
  3. Wang T, Du Z, Zhu F, Cao Z, An Y, Gao Y, Jiang B . Comorbidities and multi-organ injuries in the treatment of COVID-19 . Lancet . 395 . 10228 . e52 . March 2020 . 32171074 . 10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30558-4 . Elsevier BV . 7270177 . free . doi .
  4. Tao K, Tzou PL, Nouhin J, Bonilla H, Jagannathan P, Shafer RW . SARS-CoV-2 Antiviral Therapy . Clinical Microbiology Reviews . e0010921 . July 2021 . 34 . 4 . 34319150 . 8404831 . 10.1128/CMR.00109-21 . 236472654 .
  5. Wang Y, Wang Y, Chen Y, Qin Q . Unique epidemiological and clinical features of the emerging 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) implicate special control measures . Journal of Medical Virology . 568–576 . March 2020 . 92 . 6 . 32134116 . 10.1002/jmv.25748 . 7228347 . free . doi .
  6. Martel J, Ko YF, Young JD, Ojcius DM . Could nasal breathing help to mitigate the severity of COVID-19 . Microbes and Infection . 22 . 4–5 . 168–171 . May 2020 . 32387333 . 10.1016/j.micinf.2020.05.002 . 7200356 .
  7. Web site: Coronavirus recovery: breathing exercises . www.hopkinsmedicine.org . Johns Hopkins Medicine . 30 July 2020 . 11 October 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201011115735/https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/coronavirus-recovery-breathing-exercises/ . live .
  8. Wang L, Wang Y, Ye D, Liu Q . Review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) based on current evidence . International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents . 105948 . March 2020 . 55 . 6 . 32201353 . 7156162 . 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105948 .
  9. Web site: What to Do if You Are Sick . ((U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)) . 5 April 2020. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). live. https://web.archive.org/web/20200214153016/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/steps-when-sick.html. 14 February 2020. 24 April 2020.
  10. November 2020 . Update to living WHO guideline on drugs for covid-19. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 371. m4475. 10.1136/bmj.m4475. 1756-1833. 33214213. free. 227059995.
  11. Web site: Q&A: Dexamethasone and COVID-19. 11 July 2020. World Health Organization (WHO). 11 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201011115730/https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/q-a-dexamethasone-and-covid-19/. live.
  12. Web site: Home. 11 July 2020. . 11 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201011115732/https://covid19evidence.net.au//. live.
  13. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, Liu L, Shan H, Lei CL, Hui DS, Du B, Li LJ, Zeng G, Yuen KY, Chen RC, Tang CL, Wang T, Chen PY, Xiang J, Li SY, Wang JL, Liang ZJ, Peng YX, Wei L, Liu Y, Hu YH, Peng P, Wang JM, Liu JY, Chen Z, Li G, Zheng ZJ, Qiu SQ, Luo J, Ye CJ, Zhu SY, Zhong NS . April 2020 . Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China . The New England Journal of Medicine . Massachusetts Medical Society . 382 . 18 . 1708–1720 . 10.1056/nejmoa2002032 . 7092819 . 32109013 . free . doi.
  14. Henry BM . COVID-19, ECMO, and lymphopenia: a word of caution . The Lancet. Respiratory Medicine . 8 . 4 . e24 . April 2020 . 32178774 . 7118650 . 10.1016/s2213-2600(20)30119-3 . Elsevier BV .
  15. Kim JS, Lee JY, Yang JW, Lee KH, Effenberger M, Szpirt W, Kronbichler A, Shin JI . Immunopathogenesis and treatment of cytokine storm in COVID-19 . Theranostics . 11 . 1 . 316–329 . 2021 . 33391477 . 7681075 . 10.7150/thno.49713 .
  16. Web site: 8 April 2022 . COVID Treatment Guidelines: Clinical Management Summary . 2022-04-19 . NIH Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines . en . 5 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211105152002/https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/management/clinical-management/clinical-management-summary/ . live .
  17. Web site: Wise J . 2022-04-17 . What Happened to Paxlovid, the COVID Wonder Drug? . 2022-04-19 . Intelligencer . en-us . 19 April 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220419203446/https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2022/04/what-happened-to-paxlovid-the-covid-19-wonder-drug.html . live .
  18. . Drug treatments for covid-19: living systematic review and network meta-analysis . BMJ . 373 . n967 . April 2021 . 33849936 . 10.1136/bmj.n967 . free . 11375/26524 . free .
  19. News: Aripaka P . Britain approves Merck's COVID-19 pill in world first . 8 November 2021 . Reuters . 5 November 2021 . 8 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211108010610/https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/britain-approves-mercks-oral-covid-19-pill-2021-11-04/ . live .
  20. News: Beasley D . Pfizer says its antiviral pill slashes risk of severe COVID-19 by 89% . 8 November 2021 . Reuters . 5 November 2021 . 7 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211107223927/https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/pfizer-says-antiviral-pill-cuts-risk-severe-covid-19-by-89-2021-11-05/ . live .
  21. Reis S, Metzendorf MI, Kuehn R, Popp M, Gagyor I, Kranke P, Meybohm P, Skoetz N, Weibel S . Nirmatrelvir combined with ritonavir for preventing and treating COVID-19 . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2023 . 11 . CD015395 . November 2023 . 38032024 . 10688265 . 10.1002/14651858.CD015395.pub3 .
  22. Siemieniuk RA, Bartoszko JJ, Ge L, Zeraatkar D, Izcovich A, Kum E, Pardo-Hernandez H, Rochwerg B, Lamontagne F, Han MA, Liu Q, Agarwal A, Agoritsas T, Chu DK, Couban R, Darzi A, Devji T, Fang B, Fang C, Flottorp SA, Foroutan F, Ghadimi M, Heels-Ansdell D, Honarmand K, Hou L, Hou X, Ibrahim Q, Khamis A, Lam B, Loeb M, Marcucci M, McLeod SL, Motaghi S, Murthy S, Mustafa RA, Neary JD, Qasim A, Rada G, Riaz IB, Sadeghirad B, Sekercioglu N, Sheng L, Sreekanta A, Switzer C, Tendal B, Thabane L, Tomlinson G, Turner T, Vandvik PO, Vernooij RW, Viteri-García A, Wang Y, Yao L, Ye Z, Guyatt GH, Brignardello-Petersen R . July 2020 . Drug treatments for covid-19: living systematic review and network meta-analysis . BMJ . 370 . m2980 . 10.1136/bmj.m2980 . 7390912 . 32732190 . free.
  23. News: Saima MS . Common Antidepressant Slashes Risk of COVID Death . 8 November 2021 . Nature . 2 November 2021 . 8 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211108093605/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/common-antidepressant-slashes-risk-of-covid-death/ . live .
  24. Kim PS, Read SW, Fauci AS . Therapy for Early COVID-19: A Critical Need . JAMA . 324 . 21 . 2149–2150 . December 2020 . 33175121 . 10.1001/jama.2020.22813 . American Medical Association (AMA) . Anthony Fauci . free . doi .
  25. Web site: COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines . www.nih.gov . National Institutes of Health . 18 January 2021 . 19 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210119195223/https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/therapeutic-management/ . live . /
  26. Hsu J . Covid-19: What now for remdesivir? . BMJ . 371 . m4457 . November 2020 . 33214186 . 10.1136/bmj.m4457 . free . doi .
  27. Web site: Molnupiravir: First pill to treat Covid gets approval in UK . https://web.archive.org/web/20211104111147/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-59163899 . 4 November 2021 . Reed J . 4 November 2021 . www.bbc.co.uk . 23 November 2021 .
  28. Web site: Clinical management of COVID-19. World Health Organization (WHO). 27 May 2020. 18 January 2021. 15 January 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210115233035/https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/clinical-management-of-covid-19. live.
  29. Web site: Coronavirus (COVID-19) | NICE . National Institute for Health and Care Excellence . 18 January 2021 . 20 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210120045725/https://www.nice.org.uk/covid-19 . live .
  30. Web site: Motseki TP . 7 June 2022 . COVID-19 Vaccination Guidelines . 18 January 2021 . www.nih.gov . National Institutes of Health . 19 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210119213333/https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/ . live .
  31. Cheng ZJ, Shan J . 2019 Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know . Infection . 48 . 2 . 155–163 . April 2020 . 32072569 . 7095345 . 10.1007/s15010-020-01401-y . free . doi .
  32. Book: Farkas J . March 2020 . COVID-19—The Internet Book of Critical Care . live . digital . Reference manual . USA . EMCrit . https://web.archive.org/web/20200311195758/https://emcrit.org/ibcc/covid19/ . 11 March 2020 . 13 March 2020.
  33. Web site: COVID19—Resources for Health Care Professionals . . 11 March 2020 . 13 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200314035631/https://guides.library.upenn.edu/covid-19 . 14 March 2020 . live .
  34. Web site: Coronavirus . WebMD . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200201075444/https://www.webmd.com/lung/coronavirus . 1 February 2020 . 1 February 2020.
  35. Web site: World Health Organization (WHO) . Home care for patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 and management of their contacts . PDF . 13 August 2020 . 18 January 2021 . 21 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210121065033/https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/home-care-for-patients-with-suspected-novel-coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-presenting-with-mild-symptoms-and-management-of-contacts . live .
  36. Web site: Prevention & Treatment . 15 February 2020 . U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20191215193934/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/about/prevention.html . 15 December 2019 . 21 January 2020.
  37. Web site: How to look after yourself at home if you have coronavirus (COVID-19) or symptoms of COVID-19 . NHS . 22 May 2022 . 6 May 2022 . 23 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220523230330/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/self-care-and-treatments-for-coronavirus/how-to-treat-symptoms-at-home/ . live .
  38. News: Dominus S . The Covid Drug Wars That Pitted Doctor vs. Doctor . The New York Times . 5 August 2020 . 1 July 2021 . 1 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210701100613/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/05/magazine/covid-drug-wars-doctors.html . live .
  39. Tao K, Tzou PL, Nouhin J, Bonilla H, Jagannathan P, Shafer RW . SARS-CoV-2 Antiviral Therapy . Clinical Microbiology Reviews . 34 . 4 . e0010921 . December 2021 . 34319150 . 8404831 . 10.1128/CMR.00109-21 .
  40. News: 17 February 2020. Chinese doctors using plasma therapy on coronavirus, WHO says 'very valid' approach. Reuters. live. 19 March 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200304173709/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-hospital-idUSKBN20B1M6. 4 March 2020.
  41. News: Steenhuysen J, Kelland K . 24 January 2020. With Wuhan virus genetic code in hand, scientists begin work on a vaccine. Reuters. live. 25 January 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200125203723/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vaccines-idUSKBN1ZN2J8. 25 January 2020 .
  42. Web site: Duddu P . 19 February 2020. Coronavirus outbreak: Vaccines/drugs in the pipeline for Covid-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20200219184512/https://www.clinicaltrialsarena.com/analysis/coronavirus-mers-cov-drugs/. 19 February 2020. clinicaltrialsarena.com .
  43. News: Nebehay S, Kelland K, Liu R . 5 February 2020. WHO: 'no known effective' treatments for new coronavirus . . live. 5 February 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200205155653/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-treatments-who-idUSKBN1ZZ1M6 . 5 February 2020 .
  44. Li G, De Clercq E . Therapeutic options for the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) . Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery . 19 . 3 . 149–150 . March 2020 . 32127666 . 10.1038/d41573-020-00016-0 . free . doi .
  45. McCreary EK, Pogue JM . Coronavirus Disease 2019 Treatment: A Review of Early and Emerging Options . Open Forum Infectious Diseases . 7 . 4 . ofaa105 . April 2020 . 32284951 . 7144823 . 10.1093/ofid/ofaa105 .
  46. Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, Cutrell JB . Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review . JAMA . 323 . 18 . 1824–1836 . May 2020 . 32282022 . 10.1001/jama.2020.6019 . 215752785 . free . doi .
  47. Web site: Treatments and vaccines for COVID-19: authorised medicines. live. 20 February 2021. European Medicines Agency. 11 January 2021 . 19 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210219210709/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/human-regulatory/overview/public-health-threats/coronavirus-disease-covid-19/treatments-vaccines/treatments-vaccines-covid-19-authorised-medicines.
  48. Turkia M . The History of Methylprednisolone, Ascorbic Acid, Thiamine, and Heparin Protocol and I-MASK+ Ivermectin Protocol for COVID-19 . Cureus . 12 . 12 . e12403 . December 2020 . 33532161 . 7845747 . 10.7759/cureus.12403 . free .
  49. Web site: Australian guidelines for the clinical care of people with COVID-19. . 11 July 2020. 25 September 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200925214841/https://app.magicapp.org/#/guideline/L4Q5An/section/L0OPkj. live.
  50. Rizk JG, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Mehra MR, Lavie CJ, Rizk Y, Forthal DN . Pharmaco-Immunomodulatory Therapy in COVID-19 . Drugs . 80 . 13 . 1267–1292 . September 2020 . 32696108 . 7372203 . 10.1007/s40265-020-01367-z . Springer . free . doi .
  51. FDA Authorizes Monoclonal Antibodies for Treatment of COVID-19. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 10 February 2021. 9 February 2021. 10 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210210004700/http://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-update-fda-authorizes-monoclonal-antibodies-treatment-covid-19-0. live.
  52. Web site: Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Authorizes Monoclonal Antibodies for Treatment of COVID-19 . U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) . 23 November 2020 . 17 April 2021 . 25 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210125185046/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-update-fda-authorizes-monoclonal-antibodies-treatment-covid-19 . live .
  53. Web site: 19 February 2021. COVID-19 Frequently Asked Questions: Drugs (Medicines). live. 20 February 2021. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 19 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210219192006/https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/covid-19-frequently-asked-questions#drugs.
  54. Frohman EM, Villemarette-Pittman NR, Rodriguez A, Glanzman R, Rugheimer S, Komogortsev O, Zamvil SS, Cruz RA, Varkey TC, Frohman AN, Frohman AR, Parsons MS, Konkle EH, Frohman TC . Application of an evidence-based, out-patient treatment strategy for COVID-19: Multidisciplinary medical practice principles to prevent severe disease . Journal of the Neurological Sciences . 426 . 117463 . July 2021 . 33971376 . 8055502 . 10.1016/j.jns.2021.117463 .
  55. Viswanatha GL, Anjana Male CK, Shylaja H . Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in the management of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies . Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology . 2022 . 40. 3. 634–646 . 34251307 . 10.55563/clinexprheumatol/4dg0or. 247725977 . free .
  56. Shang L, Lye DC, Cao B . Contemporary narrative review of treatment options for COVID-19 . Respirology . 26 . 8 . 745–767 . August 2021 . 34240518 . 10.1111/resp.14106 . 8446994 . free . doi .
  57. Guo W, Pan B, Sakkiah S, Ji Z, Yavas G, Lu Y, Komatsu TE, Lal-Nag M, Tong W, Patterson TA, Hong H . Informing selection of drugs for COVID-19 treatment through adverse events analysis . Scientific Reports . 11 . 1 . 14022 . July 2021 . 34234253 . 8263777 . 10.1038/s41598-021-93500-5 . 2021NatSR..1114022G .
  58. Wagner C, Griesel M, Mikolajewska A, Metzendorf MI, Fischer AL, Stegemann M, Spagl M, Nair AA, Daniel J, Fichtner F, Skoetz N . Systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19: Equity-related analyses and update on evidence . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2022 . 11 . CD014963 . November 2022 . 36385229 . 9670242 . 10.1002/14651858.CD014963.pub2 .
  59. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-52354520 Coronavirus treatments: What progress is being made?
  60. Abdool Karim SS, Devnarain N . Time to Stop Using Ineffective Covid-19 Drugs . The New England Journal of Medicine . 387 . 7 . 654–655 . August 2022 . 36070715 . 10.1056/NEJMe2209017 . 251658284 . free .
  61. Zhao F, Ma Q, Yue Q, Chen H . SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Lung Regeneration . Clinical Microbiology Reviews . 35 . 2 . e0018821 . April 2022 . 35107300 . 8809385 . 10.1128/cmr.00188-21 .
  62. Janik E, Niemcewicz M, Podogrocki M, Saluk-Bijak J, Bijak M . Existing Drugs Considered as Promising in COVID-19 Therapy . International Journal of Molecular Sciences . 22 . 11 . May 2021 . 5434 . 10.3390/ijms22115434 . 34063964 . free . 8196765 .
  63. Hall K, Mfone F, Shallcross M, Pathak V . Review of Pharmacotherapy Trialed for Management of the Coronavirus Disease-19 . The Eurasian Journal of Medicine . 53 . 2 . 137–143 . June 2021 . 10.5152/eurasianjmed.2021.20384 . 34177298 . free . 8184028 .
  64. Heustess AM, Allard MA, Thompson DK, Fasinu PS . Clinical Management of COVID-19: A Review of Pharmacological Treatment Options . Pharmaceuticals . 14 . 6 . May 2021 . 520 . 10.3390/ph14060520 . 34071185 . free . 8229327 .
  65. Janiaud P, Axfors C, Schmitt AM, Gloy V, Ebrahimi F, Hepprich M, Smith ER, Haber NA, Khanna N, Moher D, Goodman SN, Ioannidis JP, Hemkens LG . Association of Convalescent Plasma Treatment With Clinical Outcomes in Patients With COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis . JAMA . 325 . 12 . 1185–1195 . March 2021 . 33635310 . 7911095 . 10.1001/jama.2021.2747 .
  66. Focosi D, Franchini M, Pirofski LA, Burnouf T, Paneth N, Joyner MJ, Casadevall A . COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma and Clinical Trials: Understanding Conflicting Outcomes . Clinical Microbiology Reviews . 35 . 3 . e0020021 . September 2022 . 35262370 . 9491201 . 10.1128/cmr.00200-21 . Review .
  67. Qian Z, Zhang Z, Ma H, Shao S, Kang H, Tong Z . The efficiency of convalescent plasma in COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials . Frontiers in Immunology . 13 . 964398 . 2022 . 35967398 . 9366612 . 10.3389/fimmu.2022.964398 . Systematic review . free .
  68. Focosi D, Franchini M, Pirofski LA, Burnouf T, Paneth N, Joyner MJ, Casadevall A . COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma and Clinical Trials: Understanding Conflicting Outcomes . Clinical Microbiology Reviews . 35 . 3 . e0020021 . September 2022 . 35262370 . 9491201 . 10.1128/cmr.00200-21 .
  69. News: Zimmer C, Wu KJ, Corum J . Coronavirus Drug and Treatment Tracker . The New York Times . 16 July 2020 . 3 November 2021 . 20 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210120100229/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/science/coronavirus-drugs-treatments.html . live .
  70. Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Revokes Emergency Use Authorization for Monoclonal Antibody Bamlanivimab . U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) . 16 April 2021 . 16 April 2021 . 16 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210416204530/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-update-fda-revokes-emergency-use-authorization-monoclonal-antibody-bamlanivimab . live .
  71. Abdool Karim SS, Devnarain N . Time to Stop Using Ineffective Covid-19 Drugs . The New England Journal of Medicine . 387 . 7 . 654–655 . August 2022 . 36070715 . 10.1056/NEJMe2209017 . 251658284 . free .
  72. Flumignan RL, Civile VT, Tinôco JD, Pascoal PI, Areias LL, Matar CF, Tendal B, Trevisani VF, Atallah ÁN, Nakano LC . Anticoagulants for people hospitalised with COVID-19 . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2022 . 3 . CD013739 . March 2022 . 35244208 . 8895460 . 10.1002/14651858.CD013739.pub2 .
  73. Web site: Overview of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)—Summary of relevant conditions . . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200131054900/https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/3000165?q=Coronavirus,%202019%20novel&c=suggested . 31 January 2020 . 1 February 2020.
  74. Murthy S, Gomersall CD, Fowler RA . Care for Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 . JAMA . 323 . 15 . 1499–1500 . April 2020 . 32159735 . 10.1001/jama.2020.3633 . 18 March 2020 . live . free . https://web.archive.org/web/20200318203852/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2762996 . 18 March 2020 .
  75. Web site: World Health Organization (WHO). 28 January 2020. Clinical management of severe acute respiratory infection when novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infection is suspected. 18 March 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200226041620/https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/clinical-management-of-novel-cov.pdf. 26 February 2020. live.
  76. Santa Cruz R, Villarejo F, Irrazabal C, Ciapponi A . High versus low positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) levels for mechanically ventilated adult patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2021 . 3 . CD009098 . March 2021 . 33784416 . 8094163 . 10.1002/14651858.CD009098.pub3 .
  77. Matthay MA, Aldrich JM, Gotts JE . Treatment for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome from COVID-19 . The Lancet. Respiratory Medicine . 8 . 5 . 433–434 . May 2020 . 32203709 . 7118607 . 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30127-2 .
  78. Book: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545226/ . Barotrauma And Mechanical Ventilation . Diaz R, Heller D . 2020 . StatPearls . StatPearls Publishing . 31424810 . 1 June 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201011115822/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545226// . 11 October 2020 . live.
  79. Briel M, Meade M, Mercat A, Brower RG, Talmor D, Walter SD, Slutsky AS, Pullenayegum E, Zhou Q, Cook D, Brochard L, Richard JC, Lamontagne F, Bhatnagar N, Stewart TE, Guyatt G . Higher vs lower positive end-expiratory pressure in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis . JAMA . 303 . 9 . 865–873 . March 2010 . 20197533 . 10.1001/jama.2010.218 . doi . free .
  80. Hohmann F, Wedekind L, Grundeis F, Dickel S, Frank J, Golinski M, Griesel M, Grimm C, Herchenhahn C, Kramer A, Metzendorf MI, Moerer O, Olbrich N, Thieme V, Vieler A, Fichtner F, Burns J, Laudi S . Early spontaneous breathing for acute respiratory distress syndrome in individuals with COVID-19 . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2022 . 6 . CD015077 . June 2022 . 35767435 . 9242537 . 10.1002/14651858.CD015077 .
  81. McEnery T, Gough C, Costello RW . COVID-19: Respiratory support outside the intensive care unit . The Lancet. Respiratory Medicine . April 2020 . 8 . 6 . 538–539 . 32278367 . 7146718 . 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30176-4 .
  82. Alhazzani W, Møller MH, Arabi YM, Loeb M, Gong MN, Fan E, Oczkowski S, Levy MM, Derde L, Dzierba A, Du B, Aboodi M, Wunsch H, Cecconi M, Koh Y, Chertow DS, Maitland K, Alshamsi F, Belley-Cote E, Greco M, Laundy M, Morgan JS, Kesecioglu J, McGeer A, Mermel L, Mammen MJ, Alexander PE, Arrington A, Centofanti JE, Citerio G, Baw B, Memish ZA, Hammond N, Hayden FG, Evans L, Rhodes A . Surviving Sepsis Campaign: guidelines on the management of critically ill adults with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) . Intensive Care Med . 46 . 5 . 854–887 . May 2020 . 32222812 . 10.1007/s00134-020-06022-5 . 7101866 . Clinical practice guideline . free . doi .
  83. Web site: Extracorporeal Life Support Organization - ECMO and ECLS > Registry > Statistics > International Summary. 28 September 2020. www.elso.org. 23 September 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200923154453/https://www.elso.org/Registry/Statistics/InternationalSummary.aspx. live.
  84. Henry BM, Lippi G . August 2020 . Poor survival with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Pooled analysis of early reports . Journal of Critical Care . 58 . 27–8 . 10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.011 . 7118619 . 32279018 .
  85. Combes A, Hajage D, Capellier G, Demoule A, Lavoué S, Guervilly C, Da Silva D, Zafrani L, Tirot P, Veber B, Maury E, Levy B, Cohen Y, Richard C, Kalfon P, Bouadma L, Mehdaoui H, Beduneau G, Lebreton G, Brochard L, Ferguson ND, Fan E, Slutsky AS, Brodie D, Mercat A . May 2018 . Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome . New England Journal of Medicine . 378 . 21 . 1965–75 . 10.1056/NEJMoa1800385 . 29791822 . 44106489 . free . doi .
  86. Bartlett RH, Ogino MT, Brodie D, McMullan DM, Lorusso R, MacLaren G, Stead CM, Rycus P, Fraser JF, Belohlavek J, Salazar L, Mehta Y, Raman L, Paden ML . May 2020 . Initial ELSO Guidance Document: ECMO for COVID-19 Patients with Severe Cardiopulmonary Failure . ASAIO Journal . 66 . 5 . 472–4 . 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001173 . 7273858 . 32243267 .
  87. Shekar K, Badulak J, Peek G, Boeken U, Dalton HJ, Arora L, Zakhary B, Ramanathan K, Starr J, Akkanti B, Antonini MV, Ogino MT, Raman L, Barret N, Brodie D, Combes A, Lorusso R, MacLaren G, Müller T, Paden M, Pellegrino V . July 2020 . Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Coronavirus Disease 2019 Interim Guidelines: A Consensus Document from an International Group of Interdisciplinary Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Providers . ASAIO Journal. 66. 7. 707–21. 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001193 . 7228451 . 32358233 .
  88. Ramanathan K, Antognini D, Combes A, Paden M, Zakhary B, Ogino M, MacLaren G, Brodie D, Shekar K . May 2020 . Planning and provision of ECMO services for severe ARDS during the COVID-19 pandemic and other outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases . The Lancet Respiratory Medicine . 8 . 5 . 518–26 . 10.1016/s2213-2600(20)30121-1 . 7102637 . 32203711.
  89. Xiang YT, Yang Y, Li W, Zhang L, Zhang Q, Cheung T, Ng CH . Timely mental health care for the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak is urgently needed . The Lancet. Psychiatry . 7 . 3 . 228–229 . March 2020 . 32032543 . 7128153 . 10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30046-8 . free . doi .
  90. Kang L, Li Y, Hu S, Chen M, Yang C, Yang BX, Wang Y, Hu J, Lai J, Ma X, Chen J, Guan L, Wang G, Ma H, Liu Z . The mental health of medical workers in Wuhan, China dealing with the 2019 novel coronavirus . The Lancet. Psychiatry . 7 . 3 . e14 . March 2020 . 32035030 . 7129673 . 10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30047-X . free . doi .
  91. Web site: Inter-Agency Standing Committee Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial support. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20200331002938/https://www.mhinnovation.net/sites/default/files/downloads/resource/IASC%20Interim%20Briefing%20Note%20on%20COVID-19%20Outbreak%20Readiness%20and%20Response%20Operations%20-%20MHPSS.pdf. 31 March 2020. 28 March 2020. MH Innovation.
  92. Web site: Coronavirus: 'Profound' mental health impact prompts calls for urgent research . https://web.archive.org/web/20201011115800/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-52295894 . 11 October 2020 . BBC . Roxby P . 16 April 2020 .
  93. Holmes EA, O'Connor RC, Perry VH, Tracey I, Wessely S, Arseneault L, Ballard C, Christensen H, Cohen Silver R, Everall I, Ford T, John A, Kabir T, King K, Madan I, Michie S, Przybylski AK, Shafran R, Sweeney A, Worthman CM, Yardley L, Cowan K, Cope C, Hotopf M, Bullmore E . Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: a call for action for mental health science . The Lancet. Psychiatry . 7 . 6 . 547–560 . June 2020 . 32304649 . 7159850 . 10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30168-1 . "A fragmented research response, characterised by small-scale and localised initiatives, will not yield the clear insights necessary to guide policymakers or the public .
  94. Web site: Patients taking ACE-i and ARBs who contract COVID-19 should continue treatment, unless otherwise advised by their physician . 21 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200321172112/https://www.hfsa.org/patients-taking-ace-i-and-arbs-who-contract-covid-19-should-continue-treatment-unless-otherwise-advised-by-their-physician/ . 21 March 2020 . dead .
  95. Patients taking ACE-i and ARBs who contract COVID-19 should continue treatment, unless otherwise advised by their physician . American Heart Association . 17 March 2020 . 25 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200324050912/https://newsroom.heart.org/news/patients-taking-ace-i-and-arbs-who-contract-covid-19-should-continue-treatment-unless-otherwise-advised-by-their-physician . 24 March 2020 . live .
  96. Web site: de Simone G . Position Statement of the ESC Council on Hypertension on ACE-Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers . Council on Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology . 24 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200324073257/https://www.escardio.org/Councils/Council-on-Hypertension-(CHT)/News/position-statement-of-the-esc-council-on-hypertension-on-ace-inhibitors-and-ang . 24 March 2020 . live .
  97. Web site: New Evidence Concerning Safety of ACE Inhibitors, ARBs in COVID-19 . Pharmacy Times . 28 April 2020 . 2 May 2020 . 11 October 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201011115808/https://www.pharmacytimes.com/news/new-evidence-concerning-safety-of-ace-inhibitors-arbs-in-covid-19/ . live .
  98. Web site: 19 March 2020. FDA advises patients on use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for COVID-19 . U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) . 27 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200327194633/https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-advises-patients-use-non-steroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs-nsaids-covid-19. 27 March 2020. live.
  99. Tripathi S, Gogia A, Kakar A . COVID-19 in pregnancy: A review . Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care . 9 . 9 . 4536–4540 . September 2020 . 33209759 . 7652131 . 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_714_20 . free .
  100. Web site: McKie R . 27 March 2022 . Patients with Covid and flu double the risk of dying, say scientists . https://web.archive.org/web/20220327140614/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/27/patients-with-covid-and-flu-double-the-risk-of-dying-say-scientists . 27 March 2022 . .
  101. Report 9: Impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to reduce COVID19 mortality and healthcare demand . 16 March 2020 . . 10.25561/77482 . free . Ferguson NM, Laydon D, Nedjati-Gilani G, Imai N, Ainslie K, Baguelin M . 20.1000/100 . Table 1.
  102. News: 16 March 2020 . Coronavirus is exposing all of the weaknesses in the US health system High health care costs and low medical capacity made the US uniquely vulnerable to the coronavirus. . Vox . live . 18 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200318022237/https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2020/3/16/21173766/coronavirus-covid-19-us-cases-health-care-system . 18 March 2020 . Scott D.
  103. Web site: 6 April 2020 . Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20200302201644/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-guidance-management-patients.html . 2 March 2020 . 19 April 2020 . U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Treatment and management of COVID-19".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.