Genetically modified wheat explained

Genetically modified wheat is wheat that has been genetically engineered by the direct manipulation of its genome using biotechnology. As of 2020, no genetically-modified wheat is grown commercially, although many field tests have been conducted. One wheat variety, Bioceres HB4 Wheat, is obtaining regulatory approval from the government of Argentina.[1]

Background

Wheat is a natural hybrid derived from interspecies breeding. It is theorized that wheat's ancestors (Triticum monococcum, Aegilops speltoides, and Aegilops tauschii, all diploid grasses) hybridized naturally over millennia somewhere in West Asia, to create natural polyploid hybrids, the best known of which are common wheat and durum wheat.

Wheat (Triticum spp.) is an important domesticated grass used worldwide for food. Its evolution has been influenced by human intervention since the dawn of agriculture.

Interspecies transfer of genes continued to occur in farmers fields during the shift from the Paleolithic diet to the diet adopted by humans following the Neolithic Revolution, or first green revolution. During the transition from a hunter-gatherer social structure to more agrarian societies, humans began to cultivate wheat and further transform it for their needs. Thus, the social and cultural roots of humans and the development of wheat have intertwined since before recorded history.

This process resulted in various wheat species that are grown for specific purposes and climates. In 1873 Wilson cross-pollinated rye and wheat to create triticale. Further transformations using cytogenic hybridization techniques enabled Norman Borlaug, father of the second Green Revolution, to develop wheat species (the semidwarf varieties) that would grow in harsh environments.

Recombinant DNA techniques were developed in the 1980s, work began on creating the first transgenic wheat, coincident with the third Green Revolution. Of the three most important cereals in the world (corn, rice and wheat), wheat was the last to be transformed by transgenic, biolistic methods in 1992, and by Agrobacterium methods in 1997.[2] Unlike corn and rice, its widespread use in the human diet has faced cultural resistance.[3]

Field trials and approvals

As of 2013, 34 field trials of GM wheat have taken place in Europe and 419 have taken place in the US.[4] Modifications tested include those to create resistance to herbicides, create resistance to insects[5] [6] and to fungal pathogens (especially fusarium) and viruses,[7] tolerance to drought and resistance to salinity[8] and heat, increased and decreased[9] content of glutenin, improved nutrition (higher protein content, increased heat stability of the enzyme phytase, increased content of water-soluble dietary fiber, increased lysine content),[10] improved qualities for use as biofuel feedstock, production of drugs via pharming and yield increases.[4] [11] [12]

The Argentinian company Bioceres developed a plant with the HaHB4 gene and it was grown under a wide range of growing conditions that showed better adaptation to drought-prone environments, the most important constraint affecting crop yields worldwide.[13]

Bioceres's HB4

The Argentina-based company Bioceres developed a genetically modified wheat variety with higher yield under drought stress.[14] The variety is named for its expression of a transcription factor,, from sunflowers[15] [16] [17] and also known as line .[18] [19] It was approved by the Argentine government in October 2020, with commercial introduction pending approval of the crop for import by Brazil, Argentina's major wheat export partner.[13]

On 6 May 2022 HB4 was approved by Food Standards Australia New Zealand.[20]

Monsanto's MON 71800

The transgenic wheat that was furthest developed was Monsanto's MON 71800, which is glyphosate-resistant via a CP4/maize EPSPS gene. Monsanto received approval from the FDA for its use in food, but withdrew its EPA application in 2004, so the product was never marketed. It also received approval for use as food in Colombia.[21]

Studies conducted by Monsanto showed that its nutritional components are equivalent to nontransgenic commercially available wheat,[22] and animal studies that have used MON 71800 for feed have confirmed this.[23] Environmental Risk assessments have been conducted by Monsanto,[24] and government regulatory agencies have approved its use in food;[25]

However, farmers were worried about the potential loss of markets in Europe and Asia due to public refusal of the end-product,[26] [27] so Monsanto withdrew its EPA application for Roundup-Ready Wheat.[28]

In 2010 Monsanto's partner in India, Mahyco, announced that it planned to seek approval to market GM wheat in India in the next three to five years.[29]

Escape of GM wheat seed

In 1999 scientists in Thailand claimed they discovered glyphosate-resistant wheat in a grain shipment from the Pacific Northwest of the United States, even though transgenic wheat had never been approved for sale and was only ever grown in test plots. No one could explain how the transgenic wheat got into the food supply.[30]

In May 2013 a strain of genetically-engineered glyphosate-resistant wheat was found on a farm in Oregon. Extensive testing confirmed the wheat as a variety – MON71800.[31] The wheat had been developed by Monsanto but never been approved or marketed after the company had tested it between 1998 and 2005. The unexplained presence of this type of wheat presents a problem to wheat growers when buyers demand GMO-free wheat.[32] Japan subsequently suspended import of soft white wheat from the United States.[33] A Kansas farmer sued Monsanto over the release, saying it had caused the price of wheat grown in the US to fall.[34] Monsanto suggested that the presence of this wheat was likely an act of sabotage.[35] On Jun 14, 2013, the USDA announced: "As of today, USDA has neither found nor been informed of anything that would indicate that this incident amounts to more than a single isolated incident in a single field on a single farm. All information collected so far shows no indication of the presence of GE wheat in commerce."[36] As of August 30, 2013, while the source of the GM wheat remained unknown, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan had all resumed placing orders, and the disruption of the export market was minimal.[37]

The investigation was closed in 2014 after the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) had exhausted all leads but had not found any evidence that the wheat had entered commercial supply.

In 2019, the USDA announced that genetically modified wheat plants engineered to resist Roundup were detected in an unplanted field in Washington state.[38]

Regulation

See main article: Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms.

The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of genetically modified crops. There are differences in the regulation of GM crops between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the USA and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.

Bibliography

Notes and References

  1. News: 2020-10-07 . Exclusive: Argentina first country to approve GMO wheat . en . Reuters . 2022-05-27.
  2. Plant Genetics/Genomics: Crops and Models Vol. 7: Genetics and Genomics of the Triticeae. Feuillet, C. and Muehlbauer, G. (eds.) p. 372
  3. Web site: Wheat at Forefront of Battle Over Genetically Modified Organisms . Theitem.com . 13 January 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130120062702/http://www.theitem.com/unknown/article_2e853b5d-cbf1-554b-86ba-6726e3ce1fa7.html . 20 January 2013 .
  4. Staff, GMO Compass. Last updated June 2010. GM Wheat
  5. Web site: Production of Transgenic Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Plants with Insect-resisting gene via Three Optimized Genetic Transformation Systems . Latest-science-articles.com . 13 January 2012 . 16 March 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120316132224/http://www.latest-science-articles.com/Agricultural_Science/Production-of-Transgenic-Wheat--Triticum-aestivum--Plants-with-Insectresisting-g-24697.html . dead .
  6. Picket, John (2 May 2012) Respect the need to experiment with GM crops New scientist, Retrieved 2 May 2012
  7. Web site: You reap what you sow: field trial with genetically modified wheat . Agroscope.admin.ch . 3 February 2009 . 13 January 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120301195658/http://www.agroscope.admin.ch/biosicherheit/04186/index.html?lang=en . 1 March 2012 .
  8. Kempken, F. and Jun, C. (eds.).Genetic Modification of Plants: Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry.(2010) p. 291
  9. Web site: Gluten-free GM wheat can help celiac patients. 2015-09-01. 28 August 2015. Norero. Daniel. Biology Fortified.
  10. Enhancing lignan biosynthesis by over-expressing pinoresinol lariciresinol reductase in transgenic wheat . https://archive.today/20130105163415/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117346428/abstract. dead. 2013-01-05. Allan K. Ayella . Harold N. Trick . Weiqun Wang . 51. 12 . 1518–1526 . Molecular Nutrition & Food Research .
  11. Jansson, J., Elsas, J., and Bailey, M. Tracking Genetically-Engineered Microorganisms. (2000) pp. 94–95
  12. Bailey, Ronald. "Anti-Biotech Superstition Being Beaten Back in Europe?" Reason, 21 July 2011.
  13. News: Exclusive: Argentina first country to approve GMO wheat. Reuters. 8 October 2020.
  14. News: Drought-Stricken Wheat Belts Offered a Thorny Solution From Argentina . Gilbert . Jonathan . Bloomberg.com . . 13 March 2019 . 9 June 2019.
  15. Book: Sparks . Donald L. . . . 2020 . 0065-2113 . 163.
  16. Paul . Matthew J. . Watson . Amy . Griffiths . Cara A. . Lawson . Tracy . Linking fundamental science to crop improvement through understanding source and sink traits and their integration for yield enhancement . . Society for Experimental Biology (OUP) . 71 . 7 . 2019-10-26 . 0022-0957 . 10.1093/jxb/erz480 . 2270–2280 . 31665486 . 7134924 . 204969200.
  17. González . Fernanda Gabriela . Capella . Matías . Ribichich . Karina Fabiana . Curín . Facundo . Giacomelli . Jorge Ignacio . Ayala . Francisco . Watson . Gerónimo . Otegui . María Elena . Chan . Raquel Lía . Field-grown transgenic wheat expressing the sunflower gene HaHB4 significantly outyields the wild type . . Society for Experimental Biology (OUP) . 70 . 5 . 2019-02-06 . 0022-0957 . 10.1093/jxb/erz037 . 1669–1681 . 30726944 . 6411379 . 73426507.
  18. Web site: HB4® Wheat Gets Approval in Australia and New Zealand . ISAAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications) Crop Biotech Update . 2022-05-11 . 2022-05-17.
  19. Web site: Approval report – Application A1232 Food derived from drought-tolerant wheat line IND-00412-7 . . 6 May 2022 . 199–22 . 1–23 . 17 May 2022 . 21 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220521023315/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/applications/Documents/A1232%20Approval%20Report%20final.pdf . dead .
  20. Web site: Genetically-Modified Wheat Earns Nod from Top Grower Australia . . 2022-05-06 . 2022-05-17.
  21. Web site: Biosafety Clearing-House Living Modified Organism identity database . Bch.cbd.int . 13 January 2012.
  22. Obert J.C., et al. (2004) "The composition of grain and forage from glyphosate tolerant wheat MON 71800 is equivalent to that of conventional wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)." J.Agric Food Chem. 2004 Mar 10:53(5):1375-84
  23. Kan, C. A. and Hartnell, G. F. (2004) "Evaluation of broiler performance when fed Roundup-Ready wheat (event MON 71800), control, and commercial wheat varieties" Poultry Science, Vol 83, Issue 8, 1325–1334
  24. Web site: The Center for Environmental Risk Assessment database . https://web.archive.org/web/20110725152407/http://cera-gmc.org/index.php?action=gm_crop_database&mode=ShowProd&data=MON71800 . usurped . July 25, 2011 . Cera-gmc.org . 30 June 2005 . 13 January 2012.
  25. Web site: U.S. Food and Drug Administration Biotechnology Consultation Note to the File BNF No. 000080 . Cera-gmc.org . 18 January 2001 . 13 January 2012 . usurped . https://web.archive.org/web/20120308124254/http://cera-gmc.org/static/cropdb/112_US.html . 8 March 2012 .
  26. Web site: Network of Concerned Farmers, Submission on APPLICATION A524 FOOD DERIVED FROM HERBICIDE-TOLERANT WHEAT MON 71800 . Non-gm-farmers.com . 13 January 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120110133906/http://www.non-gm-farmers.com/news_details.asp?ID=1352 . 10 January 2012 .
  27. Michael Hopkin for Nature News. 11 May 2004 Monsanto scrubs transgenic wheat: Farmers' fears spell doom for project worth millions
  28. Web site: WestBred Sale Could Change Wheat Industry . Foodmanufacturing.com . 25 September 2009 . 13 January 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20111006070940/http://www.foodmanufacturing.com/scripts/ShowPR~RID~12434.asp . 6 October 2011 .
  29. Monsanto-backed Mahyco Plans India's First GM Wheat . https://web.archive.org/web/20110521214815/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-08-06/monsanto-backed-mahyco-plans-india-s-first-gm-wheat.html . May 21, 2011 . 6 August 2010 . Thomas Kutty Abraham. . 3 October 2010.
  30. Hannelore Sudermann for the Spokesman Review (Spokane, WA). October 14, 1999 Genetically Altered Wheat Flagged – Thailand Detects Shipment Not Cleared for Commercial Sales
  31. Web site: Genetically modified wheat investigation . Staff . . June 14, 2013 . 2013-06-24 . 2018-12-07 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181207145928/https://www.oregon.gov/ODA/Pages/gm_wheat.aspx . dead .
  32. Web site: Unapproved Monsanto GMO Wheat Found in Oregon . Reuters . . 2013-05-29 . 2013-05-30.
  33. News: Japan's wheat-import suspension worries state growers . Allison M . . June 1, 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130922234211/http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2021104405_wheatexportxml.html . 2013-09-22 .
  34. News: Monsanto sued over genetically modified wheat. USA Today. 2013-06-04. AP. 2013-12-24. Hegeman, Roxana.
  35. News: Monsanto Says Sabotage Is Likely in Wheat Case . Ian Berry . . June 21, 2013 . June 23, 2013.
  36. Staff, Food Safety News. June 17, 2013. GMO Wheat Found in Oregon Was Isolated Incident, Says USDA
  37. Associated Press. August 30, 2013. Source of GMO wheat in Oregon remains mystery
  38. News: Genetically Engineered Wheat Found in Unplanted Washington Field . Geimann . Steve . Bloomberg.com . . 8 June 2019 . 9 June 2019.

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