Terrorism in Canada explained

Terrorism and mass attacks in Canada includes acts of terrorism, as well as mass shootings, vehicle-ramming attacks, mass stabbings, and other such acts committed in Canada that people may associate with terroristic tactics but have not been classified as terrorism by the Canadian legal system. (For example, the 2018 Toronto shooting was a mass shooting that law enforcement officials did not connect to terrorism.)[1]

The Criminal Code of Canada defines terrorist activity to include an "act or omission undertaken, in or outside Canada, for a political, religious or ideological purpose, that is intended to intimidate the public with regard to its security, including its economic security, or to compel a person, government or organization (whether in or outside Canada) to do or refrain from doing any act, and that intentionally causes one of a number of specific forms of serious harm." As such, some of the terrorist acts listed here are related to external events and nationalities, while others, such as the FLQ crisis in 1970, are related to internal tensions within the country.

Matters relevant to overall counterterrorism in Canada, as well as national security within the federal government, fall under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, who heads Public Safety Canada (PSC).[2] Two other ministers with particularly crucial roles with respect to counter-terrorism are the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and of National Defence.[3]

The Canadian government uses the National Terrorism Threat Level (NTTL) to identify the probability of terrorism occurring in Canada., Canada's current threat level is "Medium," which means that a "violent act of terrorism could occur;" it has been at this level since October 2014.[4]

Overview of legal framework and response

Overall issues of national security fall under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, who heads Public Safety Canada (PSC). While provincial and territorial governments are responsible for general law enforcement and criminal prosecutions, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (part of the PSC portfolio) is given primary responsibility, under the Security Offences Act (SOA), for the investigation of offences involving national security.

Canadian federal statutes establish a legal regime that prosecutes terrorists for their activities.[5] The Public Prosecution Service of Canada (PPSC), under the Attorney General of Canada, prosecutes offenses on behalf of the Canadian government, including those involving national security such as terrorist activities. If a person carries out a terrorist attack or instructs someone else to carry out a terrorist attack, they are given a life sentence. Anyone who facilitates a terrorist attack is liable to imprisonment for no more than 10 years.[6]

The Criminal Code of Canada defines terrorist activity to include an "act or omission undertaken, in or outside Canada, for a political, religious or ideological purpose, that is intended to intimidate the public with regard to its security, including its economic security, or to compel a person, government or organization (whether in or outside Canada) to do or refrain from doing any act, and that intentionally causes one of a number of specific forms of serious harm."

The Combating Terrorism Act, which came into force in July 2013, renewed parts of the Criminal Code by creating four new offences intended to prevent and deter individuals from leaving Canada for particular terrorism-related purposes.

Canada's Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) "provides measures for the Government of Canada to create a list of entities that: have knowingly carried out, attempted to carry out, participated in or facilitated a terrorist activity" or "knowingly acted on behalf of, at the direction of or in association with an entity that has knowingly carried out, attempted to carry out, participated in or facilitated a terrorist activity."[7] The Act specifically provides that "for the Governor in Council to establish by regulation a list on which, on the recommendation of the Minister of Public Safety, any entity may be placed." The ATA replaced the Official Secrets Act with the Security of Information Act (SOIA), which focuses on "conduct harmful to, or likely to harm Canada." It also defined the concept of "harm to Canadian interests" to address a broad range of potential harms, including terrorist activity, interference with critical infrastructure, and the development of weapons of mass destruction in contravention of international law.

Terrorist financing, on the other hand, is addressed through the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) and Terrorist Financing Act, as well as the Income Tax Act and the Charities Registration (Security Information) Act. In terms of the cross-border movement of potential threats, assessing the admissibility of those applying for temporary or permanent residence, or refugee status is facilitated under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA).

The Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Act provides the Minister of Foreign Affairs with responsibility over all matters relating to the conduct of Canada's external affairs, including countering international terrorism and responding to terrorist incidents abroad. Moreover, the Government of Canada lists state supporters of terrorism under the State Immunity Act, which (like the JVTA) revokes certain legal immunities from listed countries, allowing civil suits to be filed against those countries in Canadian courts for loss or damage resulting from its involvement in terrorism anywhere in the world. In 2012, both Syria and Iran were listed.

In terms of emergency response, leadership of the Public Safety Minister is granted by the Emergency Management Act.

Redress

The Justice for Victims of Terrorism Act (JVTA) allows Canada's victims of terrorism to sue perpetrators and those that support them for loss or damage that occurred as a result of an act of terrorism committed in Canada or abroad.[8] Similar to the JVTA, amendments made to the State Immunity Act, allow for countries listed by the federal government as state supporters of terrorism to be sued in Canadian courts for loss or damage resulting from its involvement in terrorism anywhere in the world.

On 1 May 2006, the Government of Canada announced the launch of a full public inquiry into the Air India Flight 182 bombing and its investigation. Initiated later in June, the inquiry was to look into the ways in which Canadian law restricted funding terrorist groups, how well witness protection is provided in terrorist cases, if Canada needs to upgrade its airport security, and if issues of co-operation between the RCMP, CSIS, and other law enforcement agencies had been resolved. It was to also provide a forum wherein families of the victims could testify on the impact of the bombing and would not repeat any criminal trials.[9]

From 1 December 2011 to 31 July 2012, families of the passengers and crew who died on Air India Flight 182 on 23 June 1985 have been offered a one-time ex gratia payment by Canadian government, as "a demonstration of solicitude and recognition for the administrative disdain families experienced in the years following" the tragedy. Payments have been made to eligible applicants for 275 victims.[10] Moreover, every June 23, some Canadians observe National Day of Remembrance for Victims of Terrorism to honour the victims.

Emergency response

In terms of emergency response, leadership of the Minister of Public Safety is granted by the Emergency Management Act. The chief means through which the Public Safety Minister facilitates their emergency response is through the Government Operations Centre (GOC). The GOC, on behalf of the federal government, supports response coordination across the government and others.

In practice, the immediate response to terrorist incidents in Canada is to be led by local law enforcement and emergency management authorities. This involves the RCMP as being the first police responder in those provinces and territories where it provides local police services. Particular terrorist incidents may involve specific responses from designated agencies; for instance, under the National Defence Act or through the Crown Prerogative, the Canadian Armed Forces can be called upon to respond directly to terrorist incidents in Canada. As such, the Minister of National Defence plays a key role in preparation for, and execution of, any deployment of Canadian Forces in response to terrorist activity domestically or abroad.

Immediately following the 2001 September 11 attacks in the United States, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police initiated Project Shock which sought to quickly collect and act on any information or intel related to possible threats posed by Muslims in Canada.[11] Project Thread was a police operation in 2003 that resulted in the arrest of 24 immigrants in the Greater Toronto Area amidst allegations that they formed a threat to national security, and maintained "suspected ties to al-Qaeda."[12] [13]

Counter-terrorism in Canada

Matters relevant to overall counter-terrorism in Canada, as well as national security within the federal government, fall under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, who heads Public Safety Canada (PSC). Two other ministers with particularly crucial roles with respect to counter-terrorism are the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and of National Defence. Additionally, the National Security Advisor (NSA) is responsible for providing information, advice, and recommendations on security and intelligence to the Prime Minister; co-ordinating the security and intelligence community; and overseeing intelligence assessment.

Claiming that the safety and security of Canadians to be its first priority, the Government of Canada puts significant attention towards its counterterrorism efforts.[14] "Building Resilience Against Terrorism" (2013) is Canada's first counterterrorism strategy, which aims to counter domestic and international terrorism so to protect Canada, Canadians, and Canadian interests. The strategy "assesses the nature and scale of the threat, and "sets out basic principles and elements that underpin the Government's counter-terrorism activities."

The Canadian government uses the National Terrorism Threat Level (NTTL) to identify the probability of terrorism occurring in Canada., Canada's current threat level is "Medium," which means that a "violent act of terrorism could occur;" it has been at this level since October 2014. More specifically, this means that "extremist groups and individuals located in Canada and abroad, have both the intent AND capability to carry out an act of terrorism in Canada."

Counter-terrorism organizations and jurisdictions

Federal government organizations that have a hand in counterterrorism in Canada include:

In terms of broader counterterrorism intelligence, other federal organizations also collect information in support of their primary responsibilities; this includes:

Intelligence assessment

The Canadian Security Intelligence Service, part of Public Safety Canada, is Canada's primary national intelligence agency. Among other things, CSIS compiles the information they collect themselves with information from other sources to provide Parliament with intelligence assessments on terrorist threats. The National Security Advisor (NSA) is responsible for providing information, advice, and recommendations on security and intelligence to the Prime Minister; co-ordinating the security and intelligence community; and overseeing intelligence assessment.

The Integrated Terrorism Assessment Centre (ITAC) is a cooperative initiative, housed at CSIS, to facilitate intelligence information sharing and analysis within the Canadian intelligence community and to first responders, such as law enforcement. Its assessments integrate intelligence from across departments and agencies as well as from external partners. Similarly, the RCMP's Integrated National Security Enforcement Teams (INSETs) bring together federal, provincial, and municipal police and intelligence resources "to collect, share, and analyze information in support of criminal investigations and threat assessments."

The Communications Security Establishment, administered under the Department of National Defence (DND), is responsible for foreign signals intelligence (SIGINT) and protecting government electronic communication networks.

The Privy Council Office's Security and Intelligence Secretariat provides policy support to the NSA, the Prime Minister, and the Clerk of the Privy Council, as well as coordinating committees on security and intelligence issues. The PCO's International Assessment Staff (PCO IAS) helps to coordinate "the efforts of the Canadian assessment community and provides PCO and other senior government clients with policy-neutral assessments of foreign developments and trends that may affect Canadian interests."

Terrorist financing

Terrorist financing in Canada is addressed through the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) and Terrorist Financing Act (PCMLTFA), as well as the Income Tax Act and the Charities Registration (Security Information) Act, which are administered by the Department of Finance.

In accordance with the PCMLTFA, the Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre works to prevent and deter terrorist financing. Likewise, the Charities Directorate of the Canada Revenue Agency reviews applications, conducts audits, and collects and analyzes multi-source intelligence in order to detect and address risks to Canada's charitable sector. These operations are in accordance with the Income Tax Act, the Charities Registration (Security Information) Act, and the PCMLTFA.

The Finance Department also leads the Canadian effort in related international activities, particularly regarding the work of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF).

Border and transportation security

Measures taken in regards to cross-border movement of potential threats are facilitated under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA), primarily by the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) and Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC).

The CBSA, which is a part of Public Safety Canada, has an "Immigration Security Screening" program, which can "detect the movement of potential subjects of interest as they apply for temporary or permanent residence, or refugee status," as per IRPA. CBSA also monitors the cross-border flow of currency, and has the authority to seize "unreported currency flows suspected of being the proceeds of crime or related to terrorist financing."

Under IRPA, the Canadian government uses security certificates to detain and deport foreign nationals and all other non-citizens living in Canada. The certificate can be issued towards a permanent resident or any other non-citizen perceived to be a threat to national security, as well as those suspected of violating human rights or of having membership within organized crime.[16] [17]

The security of transportation systems are primarily facilitated by Transport Canada, which is the lead department for responding to transportation security incidents and for transportation-related emergency preparedness. This includes the security of aviation, marine, rail, road, and intermodal transportation security systems. Transport Canada's responsibilities are granted through several key federal statutes, such as the Aeronautics Act, the Marine Transportation Security Act, the Railway Safety Act, the International Bridges and Tunnels Act and the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act.

Public Safety Canada and Transport Canada jointly oversee the Canadian no-fly list, called the Passenger Protect program, which identifies individuals who may pose a threat to aviation security and "reduces their ability to cause harm or threaten aviation by taking action, such as preventing them from boarding an aircraft." Additional security is provided through passenger and baggage screening, which is conducted by Transport Canada's Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA).

International and extraterritorial security

The Combating Terrorism Act, which came into force in July 2013, was put in place with the intent to prevent and deter individuals from leaving Canada for particular terrorism-related purposes.

The Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Act provides the Minister of Foreign Affairs with responsibility over all matters relating to the conduct of Canada's external affairs, including countering international terrorism and responding to terrorist incidents abroad. As such, the Foreign Affairs Minister leads Canada's response to terrorist or security-related incidents outside of the country. Global Affairs Canada is accordingly responsible for assessing social, economic, security, and political developments that "help define a global threat environment." Depending on the nature of the incident, the Canadian response can include the provision of consular assistance to Canadians overseas (including expatriates); financial or physical aid; or deployments of experts from Canada's national security community.

Extraterritorial investigations of terrorist activity are investigated by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (part of Public Safety Canada) when committed against a Canadian citizen or by a Canadian citizen abroad.

Various federal organizations, particularly the Canada Centre for Community Engagement and Prevention of Violence (Canada Centre; also part of Public Safety Canada), closely collaborate with partners in the Five Eyes (United States, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand), the Group of Seven (G7), and the European Union. The Canada Centre also actively participates in multilateral forums such as the United Nations and the Global Counterterrorism Forum (GCTF), as well as collaborating with the Institute for Strategic Dialogue, the Hedayah Center, and the Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats (CREST).[18]

The Canadian government also engages in the Global Coalition against Daesh, a partnership of 79 countries that works towards defeating Daesh through such activities as preventing the flow of foreign terrorist fighters across borders and countering the group's communications.

Biosecurity

In terms of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear warfare, the surveillance for diseases and events resulting from the use of CBRNE agents is the responsibility of Public Health Agency of Canada, who is in charge of coordinating a public health response to such a terrorist incident. Monitoring services, hazard assessments, information, and advisories and decontamination strategies are also provided by Health Canada for CBRNE events. PHAC also maintains the National Emergency Stockpile System, which contains medical countermeasures against CBRNE agents and disaster medical supplies for use in mass-casualty incidents.

Moreover, all members of the Canadian Forces are trained in CBRNE defense. The Canadian Joint Incident Response Unit is a unit under the direction of the Canadian Special Operations Forces Command that is tasked with supporting the federal government in preventing, controlling, and mitigating CBRN threats to Canada, Canadians, and Canadian interests.

Health Canada is also mandated to provide services to support the overall security objectives for major international events (such as the 2010 Winter Olympics or G20 summit), specifically in the areas of health and safety of federal government employees, surveillance and response to radiological nuclear threats, and support to first-responders in the event of a CBRNE event or disease outbreak.

Designated organizations

See main article: Organizations designated as terrorist by Canada. The government of Canada has banned more than 52 terrorist organizations.[19] These include Al Qaeda, the Armed Islamic Group, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), the International Sikh Youth Federation, the Palestine Liberation Front, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command, Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Hezbollah,[20] Kahane Chai, and the Taliban.[21] In 2019, Combat 18 and Blood & Honour were the first neo-Nazi groups in Canada to be banned by the government.[22]

In April 2006, the Canadian government designated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam as a terrorist group.[23] In December that year, the government expanded the federal ban of Hezbollah from the purely militant wing to all 16 sub-organizations.[24]

Research on extremism in Canada

The Kanishka Project was a CA$10-million, five-year initiative of Public Safety Canada that provided funding to research on terrorism-related matters affecting Canada.[25] [26]

Announced by the Government of Canada in June 2011, the Project was named after the Boeing 747-237B (Emperor Kanishka) plane that was bombed in the Air India Flight 182 attack of 1985. It funded nearly 70 projects and contributed to hosting various events related to discussing counter-terrorism. As part of the Project, $3.7 million was invested with Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) towards supporting research and related activities that addressed the issues identified by the Kanishka Project.[27]

The Canadian Network for Research on Terrorism, Security and Society (TSAS), located at the University of Waterloo, is an academic research network purposed to form "multidisciplinary research on terrorist radicalization" and "the coordinated interaction of academic researchers with government officials." It was created in 2012 with funding both the Kanishka Project and a grant from the SSHRC.[28] TSAS' co-directors are Lorne Dawson and Veronica Kitchen.

Radicalization in Canada

The Constitution of Canada, through the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, protects the freedom of thought, belief, opinion, and expression of Canadians. As a result, having radical ideals is not considered to be illegal in Canada.

In terms of radicalization to violence, various federal and provincial/territorial government initiatives have been established, particularly under Public Safety Canada on the federal level. Particularly, the Canada Centre for Community Engagement and Prevention of Violence (Canada Centre) leads the Canadian government's efforts to "counter radicalization to violence." It does not manage or advise on individual cases, but rather addresses the issue in terms of broad strategy.[29] The Centre was mandated in 2015; the federal budget the following year allocated $35 million over five years to establish and support the Centre, in addition to $10 million per year on-going. The Canada Centre also leads the Canadian government's engagement and cooperation with the Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism (GIFCT), established by Google, Facebook, Twitter, and Microsoft in 2017.

On 11 December 2018, the Canada Centre launched the "National Strategy on Countering Radicalization to Violence," which is meant to "explain[] radicalization to violence and the destructive and harmful behaviours involved," as well as outlining the federal government's "approach and key priorities in countering and preventing radicalization to violence." Implementation of the National Strategy is supervised by the National Expert Committee on Countering Radicalization to Violence.

The Community Resilience Fund (CRF) is a system, administered by the Canada Centre, for supporting "partnerships in countering radicalization to violence in Canada," providing funding to organizations towards engagement (e.g., research, cooperation, engaging communities, etc.) with the issue.[30] As of 2019‑2020 onward, the Fund has been promised $7 million available each year for existing and new projects. Through CRF, the Canada Centre has supported the Centre for the Prevention of Radicalization Leading to Violence, located in Montréal, in conducting research on "better understanding risk and protective factors within families of individuals who radicalize to violence and also the role families and communities can play in mitigating radicalization to violence." Also through the Fund, the Canada Centre has supported "multi-agency intervention programs to build capacity to manage cases of individuals who are radicalizing to violence."

Counter-radicalization programs

A number of government departments deliver "social programming that contribute" to supporting approaches "to preventing radicalization to violence". Such federal departments include:

Local government/non-profit initiatives funded by the Community Resilience Fund include:[31]

List of international threats and attacks

DateLocationDetailsAlleged motiveType
April 17, 1840Queenston, ONBenjamin Lett, an Anglo-Irish-Canadian filibusterer, bombs the Brock's Monument, which honoured British general Sir Isaac Brock. The explosion did serious and irreparable damage to the monument although it failed to bring it down.[32] [33] Opposition to British rule in CanadaBombing
October 1864Montreal, QCHistorians have discussed the potential for a conspiracy to have partially formed when agents of the Confederate Secret Service hosted a visit to Montreal by John Wilkes Booth, the future assassin of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. After police shot Booth in 1865, they found a money order for $184,000 drawn from the Montreal Branch of the Ontario Bank.[34] Anti-LincolnAssassination conspiracy
April 7, 1868Ottawa, ONThomas D'Arcy McGee, one of the Fathers of Confederation, is assassinated by an alleged Irish nationalist or Fenian rebel sympathizer named Patrick J. Whelan.[35] Irish nationalismAssassination
November 25, 1965Toronto, ONCroatian nationalists bomb the Yugoslav consulate at 377 Spadina Road in Toronto. The blast "destroyed the door, door jamb, cement threshold, and foyer ceiling, and heavily damaged a vestibule and anteroom;" it blew out the door and windows, and collapsed part of the first floor ceiling. No people were killed.[36] Anti-Tito (Croatian nationalism)Bombing
September 22, 1966Ottawa, ONA bazooka attack on the Cuban embassy in Ottawa is made.[37] [38] [39] Anti-Castro (Cuban nationalism)Bazooka
October 5, 1966Ottawa, ONAnti-Castro forces bomb the offices of the Cuban trade delegation in Ottawa.Anti-CastroBombing
January 29, 1967Ottawa and Toronto, ONThe Yugoslav embassy in Ottawa and the consulate in Toronto are among 6 Yugoslav offices in North America attacked as part of a synchronized bombing, on the eve of the anniversary of the adoption of Yugoslavia’s constitution. (The other bombs went off in the embassy of Washington, D.C., and the consulates in Chicago, New York, and San Francisco.) The explosion destroyed windows in 15 houses, 35 apartments, and 6 nearby stores. No people were killed.Anti-TitoBombing
May 31, 1967Montreal, QCA small bomb explodes at the Cuba Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. The attack is attributed to Cuban Nationalist action.Anti-Castro (Cuban nationalism)Bombing
October 15, 1967Montreal, QCA bomb explodes at the offices of the native trade delegation in Montreal.Anti-Castro (Cuban nationalism)Bombing
May 29, 1969Montreal, QCA bomb is placed in the doorway of the Cuban consulate in Montreal but fails to go off.Anti-Castro (Cuban nationalism)Bombing attempt
July 12, 1971Montreal, QCA small bomb goes off at the offices of the native trade delegation in Montreal.Anti-CastroBombing
April 4, 1972Montreal, QCCuban official Sergio Pérez Castillo is killed by an explosion at the Cuban consulate in Montreal.Anti-CastroBombing
January 21, 1974Ottawa, ONA bomb explodes at the Cuban embassy in Ottawa. It is attributed to Orlando Bosch, head of the Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations (CORU).Anti-CastroBombing
September 22, 1976Montreal, QCAn explosive device is thrown from a car at the Cuban consulate in Montreal.Anti-Castro
January 14, 1980Montreal, QCA large explosion significantly damages the Cuban consulate in Montreal.
April 8, 1982Ottawa, ONTurkish Commercial Counsellor to Canada, Kani Güngör, is paralyzed after an attack by Armenian nationalists at his apartment in Ottawa.Armenian nationalismAssassination attempt
August 23, 1982Ottawa, ONTurkish military attaché to Canada Col. Atilla Altıkat, is assassinated by Armenian militants in Ottawa while sitting in his vehicle at a traffic light.Armenian nationalismAssassination
September 3, 1984Montreal, QC1984 Montreal bombing

Montreal Central Station is bombed, killing 3 French tourists and wounding more than 30. Thomas Bernard Brigham, an elderly retired American armed forces officer, claims to have been protesting Pope John Paul II's visit to Canada.[40] [41]

Anti-poperyBombing
March 12, 1985Ottawa, ON1985 Turkish embassy attack in Ottawa

a group belonging to the Armenian Revolutionary Army seize the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey in Ottawa, killing a Canadian security guard.

Armenian nationalismShooting
June 23, 1985Montreal, QC (origin) and Tokyo, JapanTwo attacks carried out by Sikh extremists living in British Columbia:

Air India Flight 182 bombing

a commercial aircraft leaving Montreal's Mirabel International Airport is blown up mid-flight to London, England. This is considered the world's deadliest terrorist attack prior to 11 September 2001.

Narita International Airport bombing

an explosion at Tokyo's Narita International Airport kills two baggage handlers, and injures four. The bomb was intended for Air India Flight 301, with 177 passengers and crew on board, bound for Bangkok International Airport.

KhalistaniBombing
May 26, 1986Vancouver, BCAn attempt is made to assassinate Malkiat Singh Sidhu, a cabinet minister in the Indian province of Punjab visiting Vancouver. Sidhu is shot and wounded, but survives.KhalistaniAssassination attempt
April 9, 1989Ottawa, ONCharles Yacoub, a Lebanese Canadian, hijacks a New York-bound Greyhound bus and drives it to Parliament Hill to protest the Syrian invasion of Lebanon. There were no casualties.[42] [43] Pro-LebanonVehicular hijacking
August 28, 1988Surrey, BCIndo-Canadian Times editor Tara Singh Hayer is shot and partially paralyzed, probably due to his statements connected to the Flight 182 investigation.KhalistaniAssassination attempt
November 18, 1998Surrey, BCIndo-Canadian Times editor Tara Singh Hayer is shot to death.KhalistaniAssassination
2004United KingdomPolice arrest Ottawa-native Momin Khawaja, who worked with British Islamists on a plot to detonate bombs in the United Kingdom. Khawaja was convicted in 2008 under Canada's Anti-Terrorism Act.Islamic extremismBombing conspiracy

List of domestic threats and attacks

DateLocationDetailsAlleged motiveType
1920sArson and bombing by Freedomites (who called themselves svobodniki, Russian: "sovereign people") targeted wood structures and government buildings such as schools to protest materialism, and government pressure to school Svobodnik childrenAnti-materialismBombings and arson
October 29, 1924British ColumbiaPeter Verigin, aged 65, is killed in a still-unsolved Canadian Pacific Railway train explosion on the Kettle Valley Railway (now known locally as the Columbia and Western Railway) line near Farron, between Castlegar and Grand Forks. It also kills Verigin's 17-year-old female companion Marie Strelaeff, member of the provincial legislature John McKie, P.J Campbell, Hakim Singh, Harry J. Bishop, W. J. Armstrong, and Neil E. Armstrong. The government initially (during investigation) had stated the crime was perpetrated by people within the Doukhobor community, while the Doukhobors suspected Canadian government involvement. To date, it is still unknown who was responsible for the bombing.[44] Anti-materialismBombing
1960sBritish ColumbiaArson and bombings by SOF (Sons of Freedom), mostly conducted in the nude, took place throughout the 1960s:
  • August 25, 1960 — A section of a Canadian Pacific Railway track near Thrums, BC, is bombed. Pieces of the timing device (including a watch) were found at the scene by police. Three members of SOF (Sons of Freedom) were convicted for the incident and received jail terms ranging from 6 to 12 years.[45]
  • 1961 — a railway bridge in Nelson, BC is bombed.
Anti-materialismBombing and arson
1963-1970Montreal, QC, and Ottawa, ONFront de libération du Québec (FLQ), a separatist group, begins a bombing campaign at the average rate of one every ten days, detonating over 950 bombs in total and culminating in the 1970 October Crisis.[46] Targets included English owned businesses, banks, McGill University, and the homes of prominent English speakers.[47]
  • April 21, 1963 — FLQ bombing of the Canadian Army Recruiting Centre in Montreal, killing Sgt. Wilfred V. O'Neil.
  • late 1960s — FLQ places a bomb in a mailbox next to the Canadian Tire store on Wellington Street in Ottawa.
  • February 13, 1969– Montreal Stock Exchange bombing: FLQ sets off a powerful bomb that rips through the Montreal Stock Exchange causing massive destruction and seriously injuring 27 people.
  • February 22, 1969 — FLQ terrorist bomb explodes at Liberal Party social club in Montreal, injuring two people.
  • June 24, 1970 — FLQ places a bomb in a window well of the National Defence Headquarters on Lisgar Street in Ottawa. The explosion killed a cleaning lady.
Quebec nationalismBombing campaign
January 29, 1965Edmonton, ABEdmonton aircraft bombing

Two U.S. jets (F-84s) being overhauled by Northwest Industries in Edmonton are destroyed and a third damaged when a left-wing group protesting the Vietnam War dynamites the planes; a security guard is killed during the incident.[48]

Anti-Vietnam WarBombing
July 8, 1965Vancouver, BC (origin)Canadian Pacific Air Lines Flight 21 bombing

A bomb destroys a commercial Douglas DC-6B airliner flying from Vancouver to Whitehorse, killing all 52 people on board. The case remains unsolved.[49] [50]

UnknownBombing
May 18, 1966Ottawa, ONPaul Joseph Chartier's attempt to bomb the House of Commons fails when the device goes off prematurely in a Centre Block washroom, killing Chartier.[51] anti-Canadian governmentBombing
October 5, 1970Montréal, QcBritish diplomat James Cross and (on October 10) Quebec Minister of Labour Pierre Laporte are kidnapped by the FLQ in Montreal. (Laporte's dead body was discovered in the trunk of a car in Montreal on October 17, and the murderers were arrested on December 26; Cross was released on December 3.)Quebec nationalismKidnapping & assassination
October 14, 1982OntarioThe anarchist group Squamish Five bombs a Litton Industries factory north of Toronto, that is manufacturing guidance devices for American cruise missiles, injuring ten.AnarchismBombing
1983Toronto, ONActivist Henry Morgentaler was attacked by a man wielding garden shears; the attack was blocked by feminist activist Judy Rebick, who was standing nearby.[52] Anti-abortionStabbing attempt
May 8, 1984Quebec City, QCSoldier Denis Lortie, a federalist, entered the National Assembly of Quebec with the intent of killing René Lévesque and the deputies of the Parti Québécois. By chance, he came in too early, so fails to kill any deputies; though, he kills 3 other people and wounds 13. Unarmed employee René Jalbert negotiated with Lortie for several hours and convinced him to give up his gun and be arrested. Jalbert was decorated the next week.Anti-Quebec nationalismMass shooting and assassination attempt
June 23, 1985Montreal, QC (origin) and Tokyo, JapanTwo attacks carried out by Sikh extremists living in British Columbia:

Air India Flight 182 bombing

a commercial aircraft leaving Montreal's Mirabel International Airport is blown up mid-flight to London, England killing all 329 people aboard, including 268 Canadian citizens, 27 British citizens, and 24 Indian citizens. This is considered the world's deadliest terrorist attack prior to 11 September 2001.

Narita International Airport bombing

an explosion at Tokyo's Narita International Airport kills two baggage handlers, and injures four. The bomb was intended for Air India Flight 301, with 177 passengers and crew on board, bound for Bangkok International Airport.

KhalistaniBombing
1989Montreal, QCÉcole Polytechnique massacre (or Montreal massacre): 25-year-old Marc Lépine, armed with a rifle and a hunting knife, shoots 28 people, killing 14 women, before committing suicide at the Polytechnique Montréal. He claimed he was "fighting feminism" and calling the women "a bunch of feminists," he shot all 9 women in the room, killing 6. He then moved through corridors, the cafeteria, and another classroom, specifically targeting women to shoot.Misogyny (antifeminism)Mass shooting
1992Toronto, ONActivist Henry Morgentaler's clinic is firebombed and sustained severe damage. The event occurred at night, so no one was injured, although a nearby bookstore was damaged. Appointments were switched to another clinic in Toronto and no abortions were prevented.[53] Anti-abortionBombing
November 8, 1994Vancouver, BCDr. Garson Romalis is shot in the leg.[54] Anti-abortionShooting
April 20, 1995Charlottetown, PEIRoger Charles Bell (alias Loki 7), a high-school teacher, places a bomb outside Province House at the Prince Edward Island legislature, injuring one. The explosion occurred several minutes after a class of school children passed through the area, and one day after the Oklahoma City bombing attack in the United States.

The 1995 attack was part of a string of bombings by Bell, which began in 1988 with a pipe bomb denoting in a flower bed outside the Provincial Court in Charlottetown; followed by a garbage can explosion in Halifax's Point Pleasant Park in 1994; ending in 1996 with undetonated explosives that were planted at a Charlottetown propane station.[55] [56]

"revenge at society"Bombing
November 10, 1995Ancaster, ONDr. Hugh Short is shot in the elbow.Anti-abortionShooting
November 11, 1997Winnipeg, MBDr. Jack Fainman is shot in the shoulder.Anti-abortionShooting
December 14, 1999Victoria, BCLAX bombing plot

Ahmed Ressam (alias Millennium Bomber) is arrested upon entering the United States by a ferry from Victoria. He was smuggling explosives in his car from Canada in a plot to bomb the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) on New Year's Eve 1999, as part of the foiled 2000 millennium attack plots.

Islamic extremismBombing attempt
July 11, 2000Vancouver, BCDr. Garson Romalis is stabbed by an unidentified assailant in the lobby of his clinic.[57] Anti-abortionStabbing
September 20, 2000Montreal, QCThe Brigade d'autodéfense du français bombs the St. Nicholas Antiochian Orthodox Church in Montreal where an English fundraiser was to be held.[58] Quebec nationalismBombing
2001Montreal, QCSecond Cup firebombing

The FLQ/Brigade d'autodéfense du français firebombs three Second Cup locations in Montreal. They were targeted because of the company's use of its incorporated English name "Second Cup". Rhéal Mathieu, a previously convicted FLQ terrorist, was convicted for all three bombings. Seven McDonald's restaurants were also firebombed.

Quebec nationalismBombing
2006Ottawa, ON2006 Ontario terrorism plot

Canadian counter-terrorism forces arrest 18 terrorists (dubbed the "Toronto 18") inspired by al-Qaeda. They are accused of planning to detonate truck bombs; to open fire in a crowded area; and to storm the Canadian Broadcasting Centre, the Canadian Parliament building, the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) headquarters, and the parliamentary Peace Tower, to take hostages and to behead the Prime Minister and other leaders.

Islamic extremismBombing / shooting / assassination conspiracy
October 2008 to July 2009Dawson Creek, BC2008–09 British Columbia pipeline bombings

six natural gas pipelines owned by EnCana Corp. in Dawson Creek, were bombed after letters were sent to a local newspaper opposing the gas industry.[59]

EnvironmentalismBombing
August 2010Ottawa, ONMisbahuddin Ahmed, a former hospital technician, is arrested (later convicted in July 2014) of conspiring to knowingly facilitate a terrorist activity, of participation in the activities of a terrorist group, and of possession of explosives with intent to do harm.[60] [61] Islamic extremismConspiracy
September 4, 2012Montreal, QC2012 Montreal shooting

The night of the Quebec provincial elections, Richard Bain, an anglophone Quebecer, attempted to assassinate Parti Québécois leader and Premier elect Pauline Marois at a victory gathering in Montreal. He also set fire to the Métropolis concert hall where the event was being held. A man was killed and another was injured in the terrorist act. It is said that Bain's ultimate goal was to kill Marois following the Parti Québécois victory. Bain was arrested shortly after the attack.[62] On August 23, 2016, Bain was found guilty of second-degree murder,[63] and on November 18, was sentenced to life imprisonment with the possibility of parole after 20 years.[64]

Anti-Quebec nationalismShooting
2013Toronto, ON2013 Via Rail Canada terrorism plot

Chiheb Esseghaier and Raed Jaser of Montreal and Toronto, respectively, are charged as part of an alleged Al-Qaeda plot to derail a Toronto-bound train from New York on the Canadian side of the border. Canadian Muslims helped to foil the alleged plot.[65] The suspects said they were arrested based on their appearance.[66] [67]

Islamic extremism (allegiance to Al-Qaeda)Bombing conspiracy
June 4, 2014Moncton, NBMoncton shootings

Justin Bourque, a 24-year-old, shot five officers from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), killing three and severely injuring two.[68] Bourque admittedly planned to kill as many officers as he could, in an attempt to start a rebellion against what he considers an oppressive, corrupt government that he insists is suppressing the freedom of most Canadians and serving only the rich.

Anti-Canadian government (pro-rebellion)Shooting
October 20, 2014Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, QC2014 Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu ramming attack

two Canadian Forces members are hit by Martin Couture-Rouleau, a recent Muslim convert. Warrant officer Patrice Vincent died of his injuries. Couture-Rouleau was eventually gunned down and killed.[69]

Islamic extremismVehicle-ramming
October 22, 2014Ottawa, ON2014 shootings at Parliament Hill

Michael Zehaf-Bibeau, a convert to Islam, fatally shoots Corporal Nathan Cirillo, a Canadian soldier on ceremonial sentry duty at the National War Memorial, and then forced his way into Canada's parliament building, where he has a shootout with parliament security personnel. He is shot 31 times and dies at the scene. Zehaf-Bibeau made a video prior to the attack in which he expressed his motives as being related "to Canada's foreign policy and in respect of his religious beliefs."[70] [71]

Islamic extremism and anti-Canadian foreign policyShooting
August 10, 2016Strathroy, ONAaron Driver is killed in a confrontation with police after detonating an explosive in the back seat of a taxi. The confrontation followed a tip from the FBI that Driver had made a "martyrdom video" and was planning an attack on an urban area.[72] Islamic extremism (allegiance to ISIS)Bombing (failed)
January 29, 2017Quebec City, QCQuebec City mosque shooting

During evening prayer at the Islamic Cultural Centre mosque in Quebec City, one gunman enters and opens fire on Muslim worshipers, killing 6 people and injuring 19 (5 critically).[73] The gunman called police from a second location about 20 minutes after the shooting and was arrested by Quebec police without incident. The gunman, Alexandre Bissonnette from Quebec City, was inspired by extreme right-wing views on Muslims, refugees, and feminists, which he shared online and at Laval University. He was also a supporter of Rassemblement National leader Marine Le Pen of France and U.S. President Donald Trump.[74] [75]

IslamophobiaShooting
September 30, 2017Edmonton, AB2017 Edmonton attack

30-year-old Abdulahi Sharif drives into Edmonton police constable Mike Chernyk, then stabs him near Commonwealth Stadium, fleeing and later hitting four pedestrians with a rental truck during a police pursuit.[76] [77] Police have investigated the incident as an act of terrorism and confirmed the presence of an ISIS flag in the van that struck the police officer.[78] Sharif was confirmed by RCMP assistant commissioner Marlin Degrand as a Somali national known to the RCMP and Edmonton Police as having past displayed signs of extremism.[79]

Islamic extremism (allegiance to ISIS)Vehicle-ramming and stabbing
April 23, 2018Toronto, ONToronto van attack

after 25-year-old Alek Minassian's van attack in Toronto, a Facebook post was uncovered which tied him to predominantly male online communities wherein terminology such as "Incel Rebellion", "Beta Uprising," and "Beta Male Uprising" is used, referring to a violent response to sexlessness.[80] Minassian was reported to have self-identified as an incel, an abbreviation of involuntary celibacy, which describes the state of being unable to find a romantic or sexual relationship despite desiring one.[81]

Misogynist terrorism / incel extremismVehicle-ramming
July 22, 2018Toronto, ON2018 Toronto shooting

Faisal Hussain killed 2 and injured 13 on Toronto's Danforth Avenue. Authorities were unable to determine a motive despite a year long investigation.[82] Hussain was alleged to have been inspired by Elliot Rodger (part of the incel movement).[83] Daesh claimed responsibility but law enforcement rejected this claim.

UnknownShooting
February 21, 2020Toronto, ONSaad Akhtar kills a 64-year-old woman with a hammer in Toronto. The victim was chosen at random. Akhtar left a note on the victim's body, expressing support for ISIS. He was arrested and charged with terrorism offences.[84] Islamic extremism (allegiance to ISIS)Hammer attack
February 24, 2020Toronto, ON2020 Toronto machete attack

A 17-year-old boy stabs a female spa worker to death, attempts to kill her coworker, and injures another at a sensual massage parlour in Toronto. On May 19, the Toronto Police Service said the attack was attributed to the incel ideology and was being considered an act of terrorism.[85]

Misogynist terrorism / incel extremismStabbing
June 6, 2021London, ONLondon, Ontario truck attack: A man uses a pickup truck to run down a family of five, killing four and seriously injuring the fifth. The family is alleged to have been targeted because they were visibly Muslim.IslamophobiaVehicle-ramming
April 1, 2023Surrey, B.CA man was stabbed and wounded in the throat on a bus in Surrey by an Islamic State sympathyzer.[86] Islamic extremismStabbing attack

Suspected terrorism

Terrorism abroad

Canadian victims of non-Canada-related extremism abroad include:

Extremists with Canadian connections abroad

The Combating Terrorism Act, which came into force in July 2013, was put in place with the intent to prevent and deter individuals from leaving Canada for particular terrorism-related purposes. In 2018, the Canadian government states that there has not been an increase, nor does it expect an increase, in the number of Canadian Extremist Travellers (CETs) who have returned to Canada. The total number of CETs identified by the government includes around 190 individuals who have a nexus to Canada, and near 60 who have returned.

The following are some extremists around the world with Canadian connections.

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: 2018-12-21. 2018 Public Report on the Terrorism Threat to Canada. 2021-05-22. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  2. Web site: 2018-12-21. Counter-terrorism. 2021-05-21. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  3. Web site: 2018-12-21. Building Resilience Against Terrorism: Canada's Counter-terrorism Strategy. 2021-05-21. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  4. Web site: Canada. Public Safety. 2016-08-25. Canada's National Terrorism Threat Levels. 2021-05-22. www.canada.ca.
  5. Web site: Canada - Counter-Terrorism - Legislation - Legislationline. 2021-05-24. www.legislationline.org.
  6. Web site: Branch. Legislative Services. 2020-07-01. Consolidated federal laws of canada, Criminal Code. 2021-01-31. laws-lois.justice.gc.ca.
  7. http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cntr-trrrsm/lstd-ntts/bt-lstng-prcss-eng.aspx About the listing process
  8. Web site: 2018-12-21. Justice for Victims of Terrorism. 2021-05-24. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  9. MacCharles, Tonda (23 June 2010), "Stephen Harper will say 'sorry' to Air India families." Toronto Star. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011.
  10. Web site: 2018-12-21. Remembering Air India Flight 182. 2021-05-24. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  11. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Intelligence Sharing between the United States and Canada", January 29, 2007
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  13. [CTV News]
  14. Web site: 2018-12-21. Counter-terrorism Strategy. 2021-05-21. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  15. Web site: Command. Canadian Special Operations Forces. 2018-01-26. Joint Task Force 2. 2021-05-21. www.canada.ca.
  16. https://web.archive.org/web/20051027010723/http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/newsroom/backgrounders/backgrounder14.asp Certificates Under The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA)
  17. http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051104/UNCanada_antiterrorcriticism_20051104/20051104?hub=Canada CTV News - UN critical of Canada's anti-terrorism measures
  18. Web site: 2018-12-21. National Strategy on Countering Radicalization to Violence. 2021-05-23. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
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  25. Web site: 2018-12-21. Kanishka Project. 2021-05-23. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
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  27. Web site: Government of Canada. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. 2012-05-11. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. 2021-05-24. www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca.
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  29. Web site: 2018-12-21. Canada Centre for Community Engagement and Prevention of Violence. 2021-05-23. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  30. Web site: 2018-12-21. Community Resilience Fund. 2021-05-23. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
  31. Web site: 2018-12-21. Intervention Programs in Canada. 2021-05-24. www.publicsafety.gc.ca.
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  36. Web site: 2014-04-26. Historicist: Bombs on Spadina Road. 2021-05-22. Torontoist . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20220817165015/https://torontoist.com/2014/04/historicist-bombs-on-spadina-road/ . 17 August 2022 . Wencer . David .
  37. Web site: Anti-Cuba Terrorist Attacks – the Canadian Connection – July 2012 . Canadian Network on Cuba.
  38. Book: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.3138/9781442622593-006/pdf. 10.3138/9781442622593-006. 4. When Cuban-American Terrorism Came to Canada. Other Diplomacies, Other Ties. 2018. 115–135. University of Toronto Press . 9781442622593. 158317334.
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  44. Web site: Explosion on the Kettle Valley Line: The Death of Peter Verigin. 26 December 2014. Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History.
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  46. News: The Globe and Mail: Series – Pierre Elliott Trudeau 1919–2000. April 20, 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20080118071232/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/series/trudeau/jgray2_sep30.html . January 18, 2008. Seven people had died and dozens had been injured. In retrospect, it seems impossible, but one bomb was planted somewhere in Quebec every 10 days..
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  48. Web site: Edmonton Disaster Timetable. City of Edmonton.
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  57. Web site: July 13, 2000. AMERICAS | Canada abortion doctor stabbed. 2011-03-10. BBC News.
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  59. News: 4 July 2009. Canadian gas pipeline hit by 6th bomb. UPI.com. 26 December 2014.
  60. News: 11 July 2014. Misbahuddin Ahmed found guilty of 2 terrorism charges. CBC News. 26 December 2014.
  61. News: Cobb. Chris. 11 July 2014. Guilty verdict in Misbahuddin Ahmed terror trial. Ottawa Citizen. 26 December 2014.
  62. Web site: Bernstien. Jaela. Richard Bain: 'I don't consider them lies. I just consider them trying to get what I need.'. CBC.
  63. Jaela Bernstien, "Richard Bain guilty of 2nd-degree murder in 2012 Quebec election-night shooting," CBC News, 23 August 2016, URL accessed 24 August 2016.
  64. Web site: 18 November 2016. R. c. Bain, 2016 QCCS 5785. CanLII.
  65. News: Kutty. Faisal. 25 April 2013. Muslims hold key to fighting terror. Toronto Star. 26 December 2014.
  66. News: Doucet. Isabeau. 23 April 2013. Two arrested in Canada over alleged passenger train terrorist plot. The Guardian. 26 December 2014.
  67. News: Doucet. Isabeau. 23 April 2013. Suspect in alleged Canadian terror plot claims charges 'based on appearances'. The Guardian. 26 December 2014.
  68. Web site: October 27, 2014. Justin Bourque targeted Mounties, wanted to start rebellion, court told. CTV News Atlantic.
  69. News: Driver in hit-and-run attack on soldiers was arrested by RCMP in July. en. CBC News. 2017-10-14.
  70. News: Parliament Hill gunman was shot 31 times, police report to reveal. en. CBC News. 2017-10-14.
  71. News: Police say Ottawa gunman had political motives, made video. en. CBC News. 2017-10-14.
  72. News: 11 August 2016. Aaron Driver, who pledged allegiance to ISIS, was planning 'imminent' attack, police say. CBC News. 26 September 2016.
  73. Web site: Trump 'sympathetic' but publicly silent on Quebec City mosque attack.
  74. News: 30 January 2017. The Latest: Quebec mosque attack victims named. The Washington Post. https://web.archive.org/web/20170130075158/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/the-latest-trudeau-calls-mosque-shooting-terrorist-act/2017/01/30/f4f0d0b4-e6b1-11e6-903d-9b11ed7d8d2a_story.html. dead. 30 January 2017. 30 January 2017.
  75. News: 30 January 2017. The Latest: Quebec 'Terrorist Attack': College Student Alexandre Bissonnette Charged. NBC News. 30 January 2017.
  76. News: Bartko. Karen. 1 October 2017. Edmonton terror attacks: Police officer stabbed, people struck by U-Haul. Global News. 1 October 2017.
  77. News: 1 October 2017. 'Acts of terrorism' in Edmonton: Officer stabbed, pedestrians run down. Edmonton Journal. 1 October 2017.
  78. News: Parrish. Julia. 1 October 2017. Police investigating 'acts of terrorism', EPS officer and four civilians injured in series of attacks. 1 October 2017.
  79. News: 1 October 2017. Suspect in Edmonton attack identified; terrorism charges pending. CTV News. 1 October 2017.
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  81. Web site: Why some 'incels' are celebrating accused in Toronto van attack. April 25, 2018. CBC.
  82. News: 'We may never know why': Danforth shooter fascinated by death, but motive still unclear. CBC News. 2019-06-21.
  83. News: Toronto Danforth mass shooter's long dark obsession with death, violence and 'incel' ideology. National Post.
  84. https://globalnews.ca/news/6661038/toronto-hammer-attack-by-isis-supporter/ Suspect’s alleged statements about ISIS led to terrorism charge over Toronto hammer attack: sources
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  86. Web site: Victim of alleged terrorist attack on Surrey, B.C., bus out of hospital. CBC News. 5 April 2023.
  87. News: March 5, 2015. White powder sent to Quebec Conservative MP harmless: police. CBC News.
  88. Web site: Canadian aid worker remembered as hero to Iraq's children CBC News.
  89. News: 14 June 2016. Philippines condemns Abu Sayyaf killing of Canadian Robert Hall. BBC. 14 June 2016.
  90. News: Markusoff. Jason. 13 June 2016. Remembering Robert Hall, a lifelong dreamer. Macleans. 14 June 2016.
  91. News: VanderKlippe. Nathan. 25 September 2016. Canadian abducted in the Philippines was in search of paradise. Globe and Mail. 14 June 2016.
  92. Web site: Ceremony honours Canadian diplomat killed in Afghanistan . 2006-01-18 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20230524151442/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/ceremony-honours-canadian-diplomat-killed-in-afghanistan-1.575838 . 2023-05-24 . live .