Strong pseudoprime explained

A strong pseudoprime is a composite number that passes the Miller–Rabin primality test.All prime numbers pass this test, but a small fraction of composites also pass, making them "pseudoprimes".

Unlike the Fermat pseudoprimes, for which there exist numbers that are pseudoprimes to all coprime bases (the Carmichael numbers), there are no composites that are strong pseudoprimes to all bases.

Motivation and first examples

Let us say we want to investigate if n = 31697 is a probable prime (PRP). We pick base a = 3 and, inspired by Fermat's little theorem, calculate:

3 ^{31696} \equiv 1 \pmod { 31697 } This shows 31697 is a Fermat PRP (base 3), so we may suspect it is a prime. We now repeatedly halve the exponent:3 ^{15848} \equiv 1 \pmod { 31697 } 3 ^{7924} \equiv 1 \pmod { 31697 } 3 ^{3962} \equiv 28419 \pmod { 31697 } The first couple of times do not yield anything interesting (the result was still 1 modulo 31697), but at exponent 3962 we see a result that is neither 1 nor minus 1 (i.e. 31696) modulo 31697. This proves 31697 is in fact composite (it equals 29×1093). Modulo a prime, the residue 1 can have no other square roots than 1 and minus 1. This shows that 31697 is a strong pseudoprime to base 3.

For another example, pick n = 47197 and calculate in the same manner:

3 ^{47196} \equiv 1 \pmod { 47197 } 3 ^{23598} \equiv 1 \pmod { 47197 } 3 ^{11799} \equiv 1 \pmod { 47197 } In this case, the result continues to be 1 (mod 47197) until we reach an odd exponent. In this situation, we say that 47197 a strong probable prime to base 3. Because it turns out this PRP is in fact composite (can be seen by picking other bases than 3), we have that 47197 is a strong pseudoprime to base 3.

Finally, consider n = 74593 where we get:

3 ^{74592} \equiv 1 \pmod { 74593 } 3 ^{37296} \equiv 1 \pmod { 74593 } 3 ^{18648} \equiv 74592 \pmod { 74593 } Here, we reach minus 1 modulo 74593, a situation that is perfectly possible with a prime. When this occurs, we stop the calculation (even though the exponent is not odd yet) and say that 74593 } a strong probable prime (and, as it turns out, a strong pseudoprime) to base 3.

Formal definition

An odd composite number n = d · 2^s + 1 where d is odd is called a strong (Fermat) pseudoprime to base a if:

a ^{d\equiv} 1 \pmod n ora ^{d ⋅ 2 ^{r}} \equiv -1 \pmod n forsome 0 \leq r < s .

(If a number n satisfies one of the above conditions and we don't yet know whether it is prime, it is more precise to refer to it as a strong probable prime to base a. But if we know that n is not prime, then we may use the term strong pseudoprime.)

The definition is trivially met if so these trivial bases are often excluded.

Guy mistakenly gives a definition with only the first condition, which is not satisfied by all primes.^[1]

Properties of strong pseudoprimes

A strong pseudoprime to base a is always an Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime, an Euler pseudoprime^[2] and a Fermat pseudoprime to that base, but not all Euler and Fermat pseudoprimes are strong pseudoprimes. Carmichael numbers may be strong pseudoprimes to some bases—for example, 561 is a strong pseudoprime to base 50—but not to all bases.

A composite number n is a strong pseudoprime to at most one quarter of all bases below n;^{[3] [4]} thus, there are no "strong Carmichael numbers", numbers that are strong pseudoprimes to all bases. Thus given a random base, the probability that a number is a strong pseudoprime to that base is less than 1/4, forming the basis of the widely used Miller–Rabin primality test. The true probability of a failure is generally vastly smaller. Paul Erdős and Carl Pomerance showed in 1986 that if a random integer n passes the Miller–Rabin primality test to a random base b, then n is almost surely a prime.^[5] For example, of the first 25,000,000,000 positive integers, there are 1,091,987,405 integers that are probable primes to base 2, but only 21,853 of them are pseudoprimes, and even fewer of them are strong pseudoprimes, as the latter is a subset of the former.^[6] However, Arnault^[7] gives a 397-digit Carmichael number that is a strong pseudoprime to every base less than 307.One way to reduce the chance that such a number is wrongfully declared probably prime is to combine a strong probable prime test with a Lucas probable prime test, as in the Baillie–PSW primality test.

There are infinitely many strong pseudoprimes to any base.^[2]

Examples

The first strong pseudoprimes to base 2 are

2047, 3277, 4033, 4681, 8321, 15841, 29341, 42799, 49141, 52633, 65281, 74665, 80581, 85489, 88357, 90751, ... .The first to base 3 are

121, 703, 1891, 3281, 8401, 8911, 10585, 12403, 16531, 18721, 19345, 23521, 31621, 44287, 47197, 55969, 63139, 74593, 79003, 82513, 87913, 88573, 97567, ... .The first to base 5 are

781, 1541, 5461, 5611, 7813, 13021, 14981, 15751, 24211, 25351, 29539, 38081, 40501, 44801, 53971, 79381, ... .

For base 4, see, and for base 6 to 100, see to .By testing the above conditions to several bases, one gets somewhat more powerful primality tests than by using one base alone.For example, there are only 13 numbers less than 25·10⁹ that are strong pseudoprimes to bases 2, 3, and 5 simultaneously.They are listed in Table 7 of.^[2] The smallest such number is 25326001.This means that, if n is less than 25326001 and n is a strong probable prime to bases 2, 3, and 5, then n is prime.

Carrying this further, 3825123056546413051 is the smallest number that is a strong pseudoprime to the 9 bases 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, and 23.^{[8] [9]} So, if n is less than 3825123056546413051 and n is a strong probable prime to these 9 bases, then n is prime.

By judicious choice of bases that are not necessarily prime, even better tests can be constructed. For example, there is no composite

< 2 ^{64} that is a strong pseudoprime to all of the seven bases 2, 325, 9375, 28178, 450775, 9780504, and 1795265022.^[10]

Smallest strong pseudoprime to base a

a	Least SPSP	a	Least SPSP	a	Least SPSP	a	Least SPSP
1	9	33	545	65	33	97	49
2	2047	34	33	66	65	98	9
3	121	35	9	67	33	99	25
4	341	36	35	68	25	100	9
5	781	37	9	69	35	101	25
6	217	38	39	70	69	102	133
7	25	39	133	71	9	103	51
8	9	40	39	72	85	104	15
9	91	41	21	73	9	105	451
10	9	42	451	74	15	106	15
11	133	43	21	75	91	107	9
12	91	44	9	76	15	108	91
13	85	45	481	77	39	109	9
14	15	46	9	78	77	110	111
15	1687	47	65	79	39	111	55
16	15	48	49	80	9	112	65
17	9	49	25	81	91	113	57
18	25	50	49	82	9	114	115
19	9	51	25	83	21	115	57
20	21	52	51	84	85	116	9
21	221	53	9	85	21	117	49
22	21	54	55	86	85	118	9
23	169	55	9	87	247	119	15
24	25	56	55	88	87	120	91
25	217	57	25	89	9	121	15
26	9	58	57	90	91	122	65
27	121	59	15	91	9	123	85
28	9	60	481	92	91	124	25
29	15	61	15	93	25	125	9
30	49	62	9	94	93	126	25
31	15	63	529	95	1891	127	9
32	25	64	9	96	95	128	49

Notes and References

1. [Richard K. Guy|Guy]
2. Carl Pomerance. Carl Pomerance. John L. Selfridge. John L. Selfridge. Samuel S. Wagstaff Jr.. Samuel S. Wagstaff Jr.. The pseudoprimes to 25·10⁹. Mathematics of Computation. July 1980. 35. 151. 1003–1026. 10.1090/S0025-5718-1980-0572872-7 . free.
3. Evaluation and Comparison of Two Efficient Probabilistic Primality Testing Algorithms . Louis Monier . Theoretical Computer Science . 1980 . 12 . 97–108 . 10.1016/0304-3975(80)90007-9. Louis Monier . free.
4. [Michael O. Rabin|Rabin]
5. Web site: Probable primes: How probable?. October 23, 2020.
6. Web site: The Prime Glossary: probable prime.
7. Constructing Carmichael Numbers Which Are Strong Pseudoprimes to Several Bases. Journal of Symbolic Computation. August 1995. 20. 2. 151–161. F. Arnault. 10.1006/jsco.1995.1042. free.
8. Finding Strong Pseudoprimes to Several Bases. II. Mathematics of Computation. 2003. 72. 244. 2085–2097. Zhenxiang Zhang. Min Tang. 10.1090/S0025-5718-03-01545-X . free.
9. Jiang . Yupeng . Deng . Yingpu . 1207.0063v1. Strong pseudoprimes to the first 9 prime bases . math.NT . 2012 .
10. Web site: SPRP Records . 3 June 2015.