| Conflict: | Siege of Caffa |
| Partof: | Genoese–Mongol Wars |
| Date: | 1343–1344, 1345–1347 |
| Place: | Caffa, Crimea |
| Coordinates: | 45.02°N 35.22°W |
| Result: | Indecisive |
| Combatant1: | Republic of Genoa |
| Combatant2: | Golden Horde |
| Commander1: | Simone Boccanegra (1345) Giovanni I di Murta (1345–47) |
| Commander2: | Jani Beg |
| Strength1: | Several thousand |
| Strength2: | Several thousand |
| Casualties1: | Several thousand |
| Casualties2: | Several thousand |
The Siege of Caffa was a 14th-century military encounter when Jani Beg of the Golden Horde sieged the city of Caffa, (today Feodosia) between two periods in the 1340s. The city of Caffa, a Genoese colony, was a vital trading hub located in Crimea. The city was then part of Gazaria, a group of seven ports located in Crimea and belonging to the maritime empire of the Republic of Genoa. The event is historically significant primarily because it is believed to be one of the earliest instances of biological warfare.
The siege of Caffa was characterized by intense military tactics from both sides. After several years of siege, the armies of the Horde were forced to withdraw. The siege is famous for a story recounted by Italian notary Gabriel de Mussis, which attributed the subsequent spread of the Black Death to plague-infested corpses having been launched over the walls at the end of the siege.
Caffa (modern-day Feodosia) was a thriving port city on the Crimean Peninsula, established by Genoese merchants in 1266 by a purchase agreement with the Khan of the Golden Horde. The city was strategically situated on the Black Sea, serving as a critical link in the trade routes between Europe and Asia. Caffa's prosperity made it a coveted target for various powers, including the Mongol Empire. The Mongols, under the leadership of the Golden Horde, sought to control this lucrative trading post, which was vital for the flow of goods such as spices, silk, and precious metals.[1]
Beyond its strategic importance, Caffa was a melting pot of cultures and religions. The city's population included Genoese, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Muslims, making it a vibrant center of cultural exchange. The city's prosperity attracted merchants and settlers from across the Mediterranean and beyond, further enhancing its significance as a trading hub. [2]
Relations between the Genoese and the Mongol Golden Horde were strained. The khan of the Golden Horde, Toqta, was piqued at the Italian slave trade in Turkic slaves via the Black Sea, who were sold as soldiers to military slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate. He arrested the Italian residents of Sarai (the Mongol capital), and besieged Caffa, which the Genoese resisted for a year, but in 1308 set fire to their city and abandoned it. Relations between the Italians and the Golden Horde remained tense until Toqta's death in 1312.[3] [4] [5]
Toqtai's successor, Özbeg Khan, mended relations with the Geneose, which allowed Caffa to become a thriving city once again by the 1340s.[6] However, the ascension of Özbeg Khan's son Jani Beg to the throne changed the political scene once more. The conversion of the Golden Horde Khans to Islam, led to them prosecuting Christians.
The relationship between the Genoese and the Mongol Golden Horde was complex, marked by periods of cooperation and conflict. The Genoese had initially secured their trading rights through treaties with the Mongols, but tensions inevitably arose due to competing interests and the volatile political landscape of the region. The escalation of these tensions ultimately led to the siege of Caffa in 1346.[7]
The Mongols under Jani Beg besieged Caffa in 1343 and the Venetian territory of Tana, the cause of which was a brawl between Italians and Muslims in Tana.[8] The siege of Caffa lasted until February 1344, when it was lifted after an Italian relief force killed 15,000 Mongol troops and destroyed their siege machines.
Jani Beg renewed the siege in 1345, and cut off any supplies to the city, leading to miserable conditions within Caffa. The siege was a prolonged and grueling affair, lasting several months. The Mongol army, renowned for their military prowess and tactics, faced a formidable challenge in Caffa's strong fortifications. The city's defenses were well-maintained, and the Genoese defenders were determined to hold their ground.[9]
The Mongols employed various siege tactics, including direct assaults, bombardments, and attempts to breach the walls with siege engines. However, the Genoese, bolstered by their strategic fortifications and the ability to receive supplies by sea, managed to hold off the Mongol attacks. [10] The defenders of Caffa employed innovative tactics to withstand the Mongol assaults. For example, they used Greek fire, a flammable liquid weapon, to repel attackers attempting to breach the walls. The city's fortifications were continuously reinforced, and the defenders maintained a disciplined schedule of repairs and patrols to ensure their resilience against the relentless Mongol siege. [11] The stalemate continued for months, with both sides suffering significant casualties and struggling to maintain their positions.[12]
The turning point in the siege came when an outbreak of the plague struck the Mongol camp. The disease, which later became known as the Black Death, caused widespread devastation among the Mongol troops. The exact origins of the plague in the Mongol camp are unclear, but it is believed to have been brought by infected rodents and fleas that thrived in the unsanitary conditions of the encampment. The epidemic of bubonic plague devastated Jani Beg's forces, giving hope to the Italians, and he was forced to lift the siege in 1347.[13] The siege and despair of the city's citizens as the disease spread is vividly described by the Italian notary Gabriel de Mussis.[14] However, de Mussis was not present at the siege and his story is contradicted by contemporary evidence from the Black Sea region. It is now believed that the Black Death spread to Europe in grain shipments that were restarted after the wartime embargoes between Venetian, Genoan, and Golden Horde merchants had been lifted.[15]
The Italians blockaded Mongol ports, forcing Jani Beg to negotiate for peace, and they were allowed to reestablish their colony in Tana in 1347. The resolution of the siege marked a temporary restoration of stability in the region, but also emphasize the broader consequences of the conflict and the bubonic plague.[4]
Facing the dire situation of a plague-ravaged army and a fortified city, Jani Beg resorted to a desperate and unprecedented tactic: biological warfare. The Mongol forces decided to use the bodies of their plague-infected soldiers as weapons. They catapulted these bodies over the city walls, aiming to infect the inhabitants of Caffa with the deadly disease.[16]
This act is considered one of the earliest recorded instances of biological warfare. The introduction of plague-infected corpses into Caffa had a catastrophic effect on the city's population. The disease spread rapidly among the inhabitants, causing panic, death, and chaos. The Genoese defenders, unable to contain the outbreak, were forced to abandon their positions and flee the city.[17]
The fleeing Genoese survivors boarded ships in a desperate attempt to escape the plague-ridden city. Unknown to them, they were carrying the plague with them, setting the stage for the pandemic's spread to Europe. As these ships docked at various ports along the Mediterranean, the Black Death began to take hold in Europe, leading to one of the deadliest pandemics in history.[18]
The spread of the plague from Caffa to Europe had catastrophic consequences. The Black Death is estimated to have killed between 30% and 60% of Europe's population over the next few years. The pandemic caused massive social, economic, and political upheaval, altering the course of European history. The rapid and widespread transmission of the disease demonstrated the vulnerability of interconnected trade networks to the spread of infectious diseases.[19]
The immediate aftermath of the siege saw a significant shift in the balance of power in the Black Sea region. The Genoese, despite the devastation, managed to reestablish their trading networks, though they faced increased competition from other emerging powers such as the Ottoman Empire. The long-term effects of the Black Death reshaped European demographics, economies, and societies, leading to labor shortages that ultimately contributed to the end of feudalism. [20]
The Siege of Caffa is significant for several reasons. First, it highlights the use of biological warfare in medieval times, illustrating the lengths to which military leaders would go to achieve their objectives. The deliberate use of plague-infected corpses as a weapon of war underscores the desperation and brutality of the conflict.[21]
Secondly, the siege marks a pivotal moment in the history of the Black Death. The event at Caffa serves as a crucial link in understanding how the plague spread from Asia to Europe. The siege's role in facilitating the transmission of the disease underscores the importance of studying historical events to comprehend the dynamics of pandemics and their impact on human societies.[22]
Lastly, the Siege of Caffa underscores the interconnectedness of the medieval world. The trade routes that brought prosperity to cities like Caffa also facilitated the spread of diseases. The movement of people, goods, and pathogens along these routes had far-reaching consequences, shaping the course of history in ways that continue to be studied and understood.[23]
The aftermath of the siege had lasting effects on trade and diplomatic relations in the region. The fall of Caffa and the ensuing plague led to a significant disruption in trade networks between Europe and Asia. The Black Death’s spread resulted in a reevaluation of trade practices and the implementation of new health regulations in the Mediterranean. This period saw a shift in the balance of power in the region, with increased emphasis on securing trade routes and improving sanitary measures to prevent future outbreaks. The lesson learned from Caffa influenced how subsequent sieges and conflicts were conducted, highlighting the crucial interplay between military strategy, disease management, and international trade relations.