A satellite constellation is a group of artificial satellites working together as a system. Unlike a single satellite, a constellation can provide permanent global or near-global coverage, such that at any time everywhere on Earth at least one satellite is visible. Satellites are typically placed in sets of complementary orbital planes and connect to globally distributed ground stations. They may also use inter-satellite communication.
Satellite constellations should not be confused with:
Satellites in medium Earth orbit (MEO) and low Earth orbit (LEO) are often deployed in satellite constellations, because the coverage area provided by a single satellite only covers a small area that moves as the satellite travels at the high angular velocity needed to maintain its orbit. Many MEO or LEO satellites are needed to maintain continuous coverage over an area. This contrasts with geostationary satellites, where a single satellite, at a much higher altitude and moving at the same angular velocity as the rotation of the Earth's surface, provides permanent coverage over a large area.
For some applications, in particular digital connectivity, the lower altitude of MEO and LEO satellite constellations provide advantages over a geostationary satellite, with lower path losses (reducing power requirements and costs) and latency.[1] The propagation delay for a round-trip internet protocol transmission via a geostationary satellite can be over 600ms, but as low as 125ms for a MEO satellite or 30ms for a LEO system.[2]
Examples of satellite constellations include the Global Positioning System (GPS), Galileo and GLONASS constellations for navigation and geodesy in MEO, the Iridium and Globalstar satellite telephony services and Orbcomm messaging service in LEO, the Disaster Monitoring Constellation and RapidEye for remote sensing in Sun-synchronous LEO, Russian Molniya and Tundra communications constellations in highly elliptic orbit, and satellite broadband constellations, under construction from Starlink and OneWeb in LEO, and operational from O3b in MEO.
There are a large number of constellations that may satisfy a particular mission. Usually constellations are designed so that the satellites have similar orbits, eccentricity and inclination so that any perturbations affect each satellite in approximately the same way. In this way, the geometry can be preserved without excessive station-keeping thereby reducing the fuel usage and hence increasing the life of the satellites. Another consideration is that the phasing of each satellite in an orbital plane maintains sufficient separation to avoid collisions or interference at orbit plane intersections. Circular orbits are popular, because then the satellite is at a constant altitude requiring a constant strength signal to communicate.
A class of circular orbit geometries that has become popular is the Walker Delta Pattern constellation.This has an associated notation to describe it which was proposed by John Walker.[3] His notation is:
i: t/p/f
where:
For example, the Galileo navigation system is a Walker Delta 56°:24/3/1 constellation. This means there are 24 satellites in 3 planes inclined at 56 degrees, spanning the 360 degrees around the equator. The "1" defines the phasing between the planes, and how they are spaced. The Walker Delta is also known as the Ballard rosette, after A. H. Ballard's similar earlier work.[4] [5] Ballard's notation is (t,p,m) where m is a multiple of the fractional offset between planes.
Another popular constellation type is the near-polar Walker Star, which is used by Iridium. Here, the satellites are in near-polar circular orbits across approximately 180 degrees, travelling north on one side of the Earth, and south on the other. The active satellites in the full Iridium constellation form a Walker Star of 86.4°:66/6/2, i.e. the phasing repeats every two planes. Walker uses similar notation for stars and deltas, which can be confusing.
These sets of circular orbits at constant altitude are sometimes referred to as orbital shells.
In spaceflight, an orbital shell is a set of artificial satellites in circular orbits at a certain fixed altitude.[6] In the design of satellite constellations, an orbital shell usually refers to a collection of circular orbits with the same altitude and, oftentimes, orbital inclination, distributed evenly in celestial longitude (and mean anomaly). For a sufficiently high inclination and altitude the orbital shell covers the entire orbited body. In other cases the coverage extends up to a certain maximum latitude.
Several existing satellite constellations typically use a single orbital shell. New large megaconstellations have been proposed that consist of multiple orbital shells.[6] [7]
See main article: article and Satellite navigation.
| Global Positioning System (GPS) | USSF | 24 in 6 planes at 20,180 km (55° MEO) | Global | Navigation | Operational | 1993–present | |
| GLONASS | Roscosmos | 24 in 3 planes at 19,130 km (64°8' MEO) | Global | Navigation | Operational | 1995–present | |
| Galileo | EUSPA, ESA | 24 in 3 planes at 23,222 km (56° MEO) | Global | Navigation | Operational | 2019–present | |
| BeiDou | CNSA | Global | Navigation | Operational | |||
| NAVIC | ISRO | Regional | Navigation | Operational | 2018–present | ||
| QZSS | JAXA | Regional | Navigation | Operational | 2018–present |
See also: Satellite communication.
| Broadband Global Area Network | Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) | 3 geostationary satellites | 82°S to 82°N | Internet access | ||
| Global Xpress (GX) | 5 Geostationary satellites[8] | Ka band | Internet access | |||
| Globalstar | Globalstar | 48 at 1400 km, 52° (8 planes)[9] | 70°S to 70°N | Internet access, satellite telephony | ||
| Iridium | Iridium Communications | 66 at 780 km, 86.4° (6 planes) | Global | Internet access, satellite telephony | ||
| O3b | SES | 20 at 8,062 km, 0° (circular equatorial orbit) | 45°S to 45°N | Ka band | Internet access | |
| O3b mPOWER | SES | 6 at 8,062 km, 0° (circular equatorial orbit) 7 more to be launched by end 2026 | 45°S to 45°N | Ka (26.5–40 GHz) | Internet access | |
| Orbcomm | ORBCOMM | 17 at 750 km, 52° (OG2) | 65°S to 65°N | IoT and M2M, AIS | ||
| 4th Space Operations Squadron | Military communications | |||||
| Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS) | 4th Space Operations Squadron | 10 geostationary satellites | Military communications | |||
| ViaSat | Viasat, Inc. | 4 geostationary satellites | Varying | Internet access | ||
| Eutelsat | Eutelsat | 20 geostationary satellites | Commercial | |||
| Thuraya | Thuraya | 2 geostationary satellites | EMEA and Asia | L band | Internet access, satellite telephony | |
| Starlink | SpaceX | LEO in several orbital shells | Internet access[10] [11] [12] | |||
| OneWeb constellation | Eutelsat (completed merger in Sep 2023) | 882–1980[13] (planned)Total number of operational satellites: 634 as of 20 May 2023 | Global | Internet access |
Other Internet access systems are proposed or currently being developed:
| IRIS² | European Space Agency | TBD | TBD | |||||||
| Telesat LEO | 117–512[15] | 2016 | 2027 | Fiber-optic cable-like | Ka (26.5–40 GHz) | Optical[16] [17] | ||||
| Hongyun[18] | 156 | 2017 | 2022 | |||||||
| Hongyan[19] | CASC | 320-864[20] | 2017 | 2023 | ||||||
| Hanwha Systems[21] | 2000 | 2022 | 2025 | |||||||
| Project Kuiper | Amazon | 3236 | 2019 | 2024 | 56°S to 56°N[22] |
Some systems were proposed but never realized:
| Celestri | Motorola | 63 satellites at 1400 km, 48° (7 planes) | Ka band (20/30 GHz) | Global, low-latency broadband Internet services | 1998 May | |
| Teledesic | Teledesic | Ka band (20/30 GHz) | 100 Mbit/s up, 720 Mbit/s down global internet access | 2002 October | ||
| LeoSat | Thales Alenia | 78–108 satellites at 1400 km | Ka (26.5–40 GHz) | High-speed broadband internet | 2019 |
See also: List of Earth observation satellites.
Satellite constellation simulation tools:
More information: