Salmonellosis Explained

Salmonellosis
Field:Infectious disease
Symptoms:Diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting
Complications:Reactive arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome
Onset:0.5–3 days post exposure
Duration:4–7 days
Types:Typhoidal, nontyphoidal
Causes:Salmonella
Risks:Old, young, weak immune system, bottle feeding, proton pump inhibitors
Diagnosis:Stool test, blood tests
Differential:Other types of gastroenteritis
Prevention:Proper preparation and cooking of food and supervising contact between young children and pets
Treatment:Fluids by mouth, intravenous fluids, antibiotics
Frequency:1.35 million non–typhoidal cases per year (US)
Deaths:90,300 (2015)

Salmonellosis is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the Salmonella type.[1] It is the most common disease to be known as food poisoning (though the name refers to food-borne illness in general), these are defined as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, causedby agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. In humans, the most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and vomiting.[1] Symptoms typically occur between 12 hours and 36 hours after exposure, and last from two to seven days. Occasionally more significant disease can result in dehydration. The old, young, and others with a weakened immune system are more likely to develop severe disease.[1] Specific types of Salmonella can result in typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever.[1] Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are specific types of salmonellosis, known collectively as enteric fever,[2] and are, respectively, caused by salmonella typhi and paratyphi bacteria, which are only found in humans.[3] Most commonly, salmonellosis cases arise from salmonella bacteria from animals,[4] and chicken is a major source for these infections.[5]

There are two species of Salmonella: Salmonella bongori and Salmonella enterica with many subspecies. However, subgroups and serovars within a species may be substantially different in their ability to cause disease. This suggests that epidemiologic classification of organisms at the subspecies level may improve management of Salmonella and similar pathogens.[6] [7] [8]

Both vegetarian and non-vegetarian populations are susceptible to Salmonella infections due to the consumption of contaminated meat and milk.[9] Infection is usually spread by consuming contaminated meat, eggs, water or milk.[10] Other foods may spread the disease if they have come into contact with manure. A number of pets including cats, dogs, and reptiles can also carry and spread the infection. Diagnosis is by a stool test or blood tests.[1] [11]

Efforts to prevent the disease include the proper washing, preparation, and cooking of food to appropriate temperature.[12] Mild disease typically does not require specific treatment.[12] More significant cases may require treatment of electrolyte problems and intravenous fluid replacement.[1] [12] In those at high risk or in whom the disease has spread outside the intestines, antibiotics are recommended.[12]

Salmonellosis is one of the most common causes of diarrhea globally.[13] In 2015, 90,300 deaths occurred from nontyphoidal salmonellosis, and 178,000 deaths from typhoidal salmonellosis.[14] In the United States, about 1.35 million cases and 450 deaths occur from non-typhoidal salmonellosis a year.[1] In Europe, it is the second most common foodborne disease after campylobacteriosis.[13]

Signs and symptoms

Enteritis

After a short incubation period of a few hours to one day, the bacteria multiply in the small intestine, causing an intestinal inflammation (enteritis). Most people with salmonellosis develop diarrhea, fever, vomiting, and abdominal cramps 12 to 72 hours after infection.[15] Diarrhea is often watery and non-bloody but may be mucoid and bloody.[16] In most cases, the illness lasts four to seven days, and does not require treatment. In some cases, though, the diarrhea may be so severe that the patient becomes dangerously dehydrated and must be hospitalized. At the hospital, the patient may receive fluids intravenously to treat the dehydration, and may be given medications to provide symptomatic relief, such as fever reduction. In severe cases, the Salmonella infection may spread from the intestines to the blood stream, and then to other body sites, and can cause death, unless the person is treated promptly with antibiotics.

In otherwise healthy adults, the symptoms can be mild. Normally, no sepsis occurs, but it can occur exceptionally as a complication in the immunocompromised. However, in people at risk such as infants, small children, and the elderly, Salmonella infections can become very serious, leading to complications. In infants, dehydration can cause a state of severe toxicity. Extraintestinal localizations are possible, especially Salmonella meningitis in children, osteitis, etc. Children with sickle-cell anemia who are infected with Salmonella may develop osteomyelitis. Treatment of osteomyelitis, in this case, will be to use fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, etc., and nalidixic acid).

Those whose only symptom is diarrhea usually completely recover, but their bowel habits may not return to normal for several months.[17]

Typhoid fever

See also: Typhoid fever and Paratyphoid fever. Typhoid fever occurs when Salmonella bacteria enter the lymphatic system and cause a systemic form of salmonellosis. Endotoxins first act on the vascular and nervous apparatus, resulting in increased permeability and decreased tone of the vessels, upset thermal regulation, vomiting, and diarrhea. In severe forms of the disease, enough liquid and electrolytes are lost to upset the fluid balance, cause an electrolyte imbalance, decrease the circulating blood volume and arterial pressure, and cause hypovolemic shock. Septic shock may also develop. Shock of mixed character (with signs of both hypovolemic and septic shock) are more common in severe salmonellosis. Oliguria and azotemia develop in severe cases as a result of renal involvement due to hypoxia and toxemia.

Long-term

Salmonellosis is associated with later irritable bowel syndrome[18] and inflammatory bowel disease.[19] Evidence however does not support it being a direct cause of the latter.

A small number of people afflicted with salmonellosis experience reactive arthritis, which can last months or years and can lead to chronic arthritis.[20] In sickle-cell anemia, osteomyelitis due to Salmonella infection is much more common than in the general population. Though Salmonella infection is frequently the cause of osteomyelitis in people with sickle-cell, it is not the most common cause, which is Staphylococcus infection.[21]

Those infected may become asymptomatic carriers, but this is relatively uncommon, with shedding observed in only 0.2 to 0.6% of cases after a year.[22]

Causes

Salmonella bacteria can survive for some time without a host; they are frequently found in polluted water, with contamination from the excrement of carrier animals being particularly important.

The European Food Safety Authority highly recommends that when handling raw turkey meat, consumers and people involved in the food supply chain should pay attention to personal and food hygiene.[28]

An estimated 142,000 Americans are infected each year with Salmonella Enteritidis from chicken eggs,[29] and about 30 die.[30] The shell of the egg may be contaminated with Salmonella by feces or environment, or its interior (yolk) may be contaminated by penetration of the bacteria through the porous shell or from a hen whose infected ovaries contaminate the egg during egg formation.[31] [32]

Nevertheless, such interior egg yolk contamination is theoretically unlikely.[33] [34] [35] [36] Even under natural conditions, the rate of infection was very small (0.6% in a study of naturally contaminated eggs[37] and 3.0% among artificially and heavily infected hens[38]).

Prevention

See also: Critical control point. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has published guidelines to help reduce the chance of food-borne salmonellosis.[39] Food must be cooked to 145-, and liquids such as soups or gravies should be boiled when reheating. Freezing kills some Salmonella, but it is not sufficient to reliably reduce them below infectious levels. While Salmonella is usually heat-sensitive, it acquires heat-resistance in high-fat environments such as peanut butter.[40]

Vaccine

Antibodies against nontyphoidal Salmonella were first found in Malawi children in research published in 2008. The Malawian researchers identified an antibody that protects children against bacterial infections of the blood caused by nontyphoidal Salmonella. A study at Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Blantyre found that children up to two years old develop antibodies that aid in killing the bacteria. This could lead to a possible Salmonella vaccine for humans.[41]

A 2014 study tested a vaccine on chickens which offered efficient protection against salmonellosis.[42]

Vaccination of chickens against Salmonella essentially wiped out the disease in the United Kingdom. A similar approach was considered in the United States, but the Food and Drug Administration decided not to mandate vaccination of hens.[43]

Treatment

Electrolytes may be replenished with oral rehydration supplements (typically containing salts sodium chloride and potassium chloride).

Appropriate antibiotics, such as ceftriaxone, may be given to kill the bacteria, but are not necessary in most cases. Azithromycin has been suggested to be better at treating typhoid in resistant populations than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone. There are recommendations on choice of antibiotic to avoid promoting antibiotic resistance.

There is no evidence of benefit of treating healthy people with diarrhea due to non-typhoidal salmonellosis. However, the evidence for the very young, very old or people with severe diseases are uncertain.[44]

Epidemiology

United States

See main article: Salmonellosis in the United States.

Salmonellosis annually causes, per CDC estimation, about 1.35 million illnesses, 26,500 hospitalizations, and 420 deaths in the United States every year.[45] About 142,000 people in the United States are infected each year with Salmonella Enteritidis specifically from chicken eggs, and about 30 die.

In 2010, an analysis of death certificates in the United States identified a total of 1,316 Salmonella-related deaths from 1990 to 2006. These were predominantly among older adults and those who were immunocompromised.[46] The U.S. government reported as many as 20% of all chickens were contaminated with Salmonella in the late 1990s, and 16.3% were contaminated in 2005.[47]

The United States has struggled to control salmonella infections, with the rate of infection rising from 2001 to 2011. In 1998, the USDA moved to close plants if salmonella was found in excess of 20 percent, which was the industry's average at the time, for three consecutive tests.[48] Texas-based Supreme Beef Processors, Inc. sued on the argument that Salmonella is naturally occurring and ultimately prevailed when a federal appeals court affirmed a lower court. These issues were highlighted in a proposed Kevin's Law (formally proposed as the Meat and Poultry Pathogen Reduction and Enforcement Act of 2003), of which components were included the Food Safety Modernization Act passed in 2011, but that law applies only to the FDA and not the USDA. The USDA proposed a regulatory initiative in 2011 to Office of Management and Budget.[49]

Salmonella is found in 8% of the chicken parts tested by the USDA and 25% of ground chicken.[50]

Europe

An outbreak of salmonellosis started in Northern Europe in July 2012, caused by Salmonella thompson. The infections were linked to smoked salmon from the manufacturer Foppen, where the contamination had occurred. Most infections were reported in the Netherlands; over 1060 infections with this subspecies and four fatalities were confirmed.[51] [52]

A case of widespread infection was detected mid-2012 in seven EU countries. Over 400 people had been infected with Salmonella enterica serovar Stanley (S. Stanley) that usually appears in the regions of Southeast Asia. After several DNA analyses seemed to point to a specific Belgian strain, the "Joint ECDC/E FSA Rapid Risk Assessment" report detected turkey production as the source of infection.[53]

In Germany, food poisoning infections must be reported.[54] Between 1990 and 2005, the number of officially recorded cases decreased from about 200,000 to about 50,000.

Elsewhere

In March 2007, around 150 people were diagnosed with salmonellosis after eating tainted food at a governor's reception in Krasnoyarsk, Russia. Over 1,500 people attended the ball on March 1 and fell ill as a consequence of ingesting Salmonella-tainted sandwiches.

In Singapore about 150 people fell sick after eating Salmonella-tainted chocolate cake produced by a major bakery chain in December 2007.[55]

South Africa reported contamination of its poultry carcasses by Salmonella. Egypt showed that Salmonella was predominant in poultry along with other non-typhoid strains. In Indonesia, the isolation of Salmonella Typhi was the main focus, while other serovars were also included from poultry. In India, Salmonella was predominant in poultry. Romania reported Salmonella serovars in poultry that affect humans.[56]

History

Both salmonellosis and the microorganism genus Salmonella derive their names from a modern Latin coining after Daniel E. Salmon (1850–1914), an American veterinary surgeon. He had help from Theobald Smith, and together they found the bacterium in pigs.

Salmonella enterica was possibly the cause of the 1576 cocliztli epidemic in New Spain.[57]

Four-inch regulation

The "Four-inch regulation" or "Four-inch law" is a colloquial name for a regulation issued by the U.S. FDA in 1975, restricting the sale of turtles with a carapace length less than four inches (10 cm).[58]

The regulation was introduced, according to the FDA, "because of the public health impact of turtle-associated salmonellosis". Cases had been reported of young children placing small turtles in their mouths, which led to the size-based restriction.

FSSAI regulation

The FSSAI has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, which is a consolidating statute related to food safety and regulation in India. FSSAI is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety.The major importance of the FSSAI License is that it ensures that the food is verified chemically and hence is safe to consume. 'Health before wealth' is a common quote as well as fact. Therefore, anything related directly to health is a matter of great sensitivity.[59]

Research

Bacteriophage treatment

See main article: Phage therapy.

Therapy with phages or bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) has been proposed as a treatment for Salmonella infections. Bacteriophages have a number of advantages over other alternatives: (i) high efficacy in killing bacteria, (ii) minimal or no side effects, (iii) no allergic effects, (iv) production is rapid and inexpensive, and (v) they are host-specific and therefore do not affect the intestinal microbiota or other saprophytic bacteria in the environmental milieu.

The use of bacteriophages is effective in the prevention and treatment of bacterial pathogens in animals. In the specific case of poultry, good results have been obtained by reducing the infection of Salmonella, E. coli and Campylobacter. Until now, the use of phage therapy to control Salmonella in poultry could reduce, but not completely eliminate bacterial colonisation.[60]

Bacteriophages are suitable to prevent or reduce the colonization of pathogenic bacteria and therefore diseases in cattle,[61] where phages are supplied either individually or in cocktail to farm animals, the routes and methods of application were examined by various authors and the application of phages through oral tube feeding or feed intake showed a reduction of pathogenic bacteria without affecting the intestinal microbiota of the host.[62] Current research is focused on improved phage delivery in a manner that avoids decreasing phage titer due to destabilization or inactivation by gastric pH extremes.

Immunological parameters of infection

From an immunological point of view Salmonellosis is an infection caused by gram-negative bacteria infiltrating epithelial cells of the small intestine in the distal ileum whereby inducing acute inflammatory response called enteritis.[63] Salmonella can infect M-cells population overlying the Payer’s patches in the intestine, cells located in lamina propria of the intestinal mucosa and other epithelial cells. After infecting cells in Peyer's patches, Salmonella can move to the mesenteric lymph nodes. This happens because lymphatic vessels are responsible for draining fluids, cells, and microbes from the intestinal tissues and carrying them to these lymph nodes. This process requires migration dependent on a factor known as CCR7. Once in the mesenteric lymph nodes, Salmonella can then enter the bloodstream, leading to a systemic infection that spreads throughout the body.[64] Virulence of the Salmonella is given by the Salmonella Pathogenicity Island 1 (SPI-1).[65] This needle-like structure, formed by a set of proteins, is known as the Type III secretion system. It enables Salmonella to effectively invade neighboring cells by injecting bacterial proteins directly into them, facilitating its spread and evasion of the host's immune defenses.[66] The first cells recruited to the Salmonella infection site are neutrophils, monocytes, and dendritic cells. Neutrophils play a key role in early defense against Salmonella, preventing its spread into the bloodstream. Studies in mice have shown that without neutrophils, there's an increase in the extracellular bacterial load during Salmonella infection. Moreover, these cells are essential for producing IFN-γ in the intestinal mucosa, which is crucial for controlling Salmonella Typhimurium through an IFN-γ-dependent mechanism.[67] Several other pro-inflammatory cytokines have been also observed after the infection of the epithelia such as IL-1α, TNFα, IL-12, IL-18 and IL-15, affecting the body-temperature by inducing fever, increase mucus production, activation of B and T leukocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages recruitment to the site of infection.[68] Resident macrophages can also recognize flagellin and activate NLRC4 inflammasome complex to activate caspase-1 and IL-1β and IL-18 release.[69] Recruited monocytes are specifically adapted to regulating bacterial replication through the production of antimicrobial molecules (anti-microbial factors such as iNOS, TNF-α and IL-1β), however, they exhibit limited capability as antigen-presenting cells.[70] While monocytes help in containing the bacteria initially, the inability to effectively present antigens can delay or weaken the activation of T cells, which are necessary for a strong and specific immune response. In contrast, dendritic cells experience maturation through both direct pathways, mediated by bacteria, and indirect pathways, facilitated by cytokines in vivo, enhancing their ability to present antigens optimally. In a study focusing on the interaction between dendritic cells and intestinal epithelial cells, it was observed that when intestinal epithelial cells are stimulated by flagellin (a component of bacterial flagella, like those found in Salmonella), they trigger a specific response. This response involves the release of a molecule called CCL20. CCL20 is known to attract DCs, a type of immune cell. As a result, dendritic cells migrate towards the site of flagellin stimulation in the intestines. Recruitment of these cells to follicles plays a crucial role in initiating early T-cells mediated responses to Salmonella infection.[71] T–cell activation is limited to the draining mesenteric lymph nodes within 9–12 h since the initial infection as in any other lymph node activated T-cells specific to Salmonella were not detected.[72] Protective immunity against Salmonella appears to be primarily mediated by CD4+ T cells. This is evident in mice lacking a thymus, αβ T cells, MHC class-II, or T-bet+ Th1 cells, as they demonstrate an inability to resolve the infection.[73] [74] Clearly Th1 response is crucial in response and clearance of Salmonella infection since mice depleted from T-bet or IFN-γ are unable to combat Salmonellosis. The presence of different cytokines in combination with cytokines produced from Th1 cells however suggests additional effect of Th17 response. IL-22 and IL-17 are contributing to protection against Salmonella by its mucosal production and antimicrobial peptides expression (IL-22) as well regulation of mucosal host defense and neutrophil recruitment (IL17) demonstrated by IL-17A deficient mice infected with Salmonella.[75] [76] Conversely, mice lacking B-cells or γδ T cells can successfully clear the primary attenuated Salmonella infection, but a robust B-cell response is essential for resolving virulent Salmonella infections.[77] Different study revealed that B-cells are essential for protective immunity against Salmonella independent of antibody secretion because B-cells unable to secrete antibodies were still protective against Salmonella, suggesting that B-cells can serve as antigen presenting cells in this context and activate T-cells responses.[78] Further experiments focused on CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes revealed their crucial role in Salmonella clearance. Depletion of CD8+ T cells resulted in the failure to resolve the infection in mice.[79] These findings strongly suggest that CD4+-mediated protection is facilitated by the contribution of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells in the immune response against Salmonella.The investigation of immune memory revealed robust bacterial clearance facilitated by both CD4+ and CD8+ responses. Interestingly, this memory was not sufficient in adoptive transfer into other mice, despite possessing a potent response. However, when serum transfer was employed, the observed response indicated the crucial antibody-dependent role in secondary Salmonella infections.[80] Immunocompromised individuals (for example AIDS, malnutrition or those taking immunosuppressive treatment) are more susceptible to salmonellosis and contribute to bacteremia caused by neutropenia in immunocompromised individuals comparing immunocompetent ones.[81]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Salmonella. CDC. 5 May 2022. en-us. 13 November 2019. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20220506010709/https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/general/technical.html. 6 May 2022.
  2. Salmonellosis Including Enteric Fever . 34794677 . 2022 . Pediatric Clinics of North America . 69 . 1 . 65–77 . 10.1016/j.pcl.2021.09.007 . Qamar FN, Hussain W, Qureshi S . 244281295 .
  3. Web site: Typhoid & Paratyphoid Fever | CDC Yellow Book 2024 .
  4. Web site: Salmonella and Food . 5 June 2023 .
  5. Web site: Chicken and Food Poisoning . 14 November 2023 .
  6. Cohn AR, Cheng RA, Orsi RH, Wiedmann M . Moving Past Species Classifications for Risk-Based Approaches to Food Safety: Salmonella as a Case Study . Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems . 13 May 2021 . 5 . 652132 . 10.3389/fsufs.2021.652132 . free .
  7. O'Hagan M . Salmonella: Why it's a chicken and egg thing . Knowable Magazine . 10 September 2021 . 10.1146/knowable-091021-1 . 239248124 . 13 September 2021. free .
  8. Ricke SC . Strategies to Improve Poultry Food Safety, a Landscape Review . Annual Review of Animal Biosciences . 9 . 1 . 379–400 . February 2021 . 33156992 . 10.1146/annurev-animal-061220-023200 . 226275729 . free .
  9. Outbreak of multidrug-resistant Salmonella newport--United States, January-April 2002 . MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 51 . 25 . 545–548 . June 2002 . 12118534 . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) .
  10. Web site: Salmonella. World Health Organization. 7 May 2017. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170417223002/http://www.who.int/topics/salmonella/en/. 17 April 2017.
  11. Web site: Salmonella Infections. MedlinePlus. 7 May 2017. en. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170430075116/https://medlineplus.gov/salmonellainfections.html. 30 April 2017.
  12. Web site: Salmonella (non-typhoidal). World Health Organization. 7 May 2017. December 2016. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170420130035/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs139/en/. 20 April 2017.
  13. Book: Hald T . Advances in microbial food safety: 2. Pathogen update: Salmonella. 2013. Elsevier Inc. Chapters. 9780128089606. 2.2. en. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170910171411/https://books.google.com/books?id=qw10DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT6. 2017-09-10.
  14. Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 . Lancet . 388 . 10053 . 1459–1544 . October 2016 . 27733281 . 5388903 . 10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1 . Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, Casey DC, Charlson FJ, Chen AZ, Coates MM, Coggeshall M, Dandona L, Dicker DJ, Erskine HE, Ferrari AJ, Fitzmaurice C, Foreman K, Forouzanfar MH, Fraser MS, Fullman N, Gething PW, Goldberg EM, Graetz N, Haagsma JA, Hay SI, Huynh C, Johnson CO, Kassebaum NJ, Kinfu Y, Kulikoff XR . 6 .
  15. Santos RL, Zhang S, Tsolis RM, Kingsley RA, Adams LG, Bäumler AJ . Animal models of Salmonella infections: enteritis versus typhoid fever . Microbes and Infection . 3 . 14–15 . 1335–1344 . 2001 . 11755423 . 10.1016/s1286-4579(01)01495-2 . free .
  16. News: Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infections - Infectious Diseases - Merck Manuals Professional Edition. Merck Manuals Professional Edition. 2018-09-15. en-CA.
  17. Web site: What is Salmonellosis?. US Center of Disease Control and Prevention. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20140331162352/http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/general/. 2014-03-31. 2019-02-08.
  18. Smith JL, Bayles D . Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome: a long-term consequence of bacterial gastroenteritis . Journal of Food Protection . 70 . 7 . 1762–1769 . July 2007 . 17685356 . 10.4315/0362-028X-70.7.1762 . 42240663 . free .
  19. Mann EA, Saeed SA . Gastrointestinal infection as a trigger for inflammatory bowel disease . Current Opinion in Gastroenterology . 28 . 1 . 24–29 . January 2012 . 22080823 . 10.1097/mog.0b013e32834c453e . 800248 .
  20. Schmitt SK . Reactive Arthritis . Infectious Disease Clinics of North America . 31 . 2 . 265–277 . June 2017 . 28292540 . 10.1016/j.idc.2017.01.002 . Review .
  21. Burnett MW, Bass JW, Cook BA . Etiology of osteomyelitis complicating sickle cell disease . Pediatrics . 101 . 2 . 296–297 . February 1998 . 9445507 . 10.1542/peds.101.2.296 .
  22. Web site: Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infections. Merck Manual. 2016-09-19. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160919092549/https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/nontyphoidal-salmonella-infections. 2016-09-19.
  23. Web site: Are the bacteria that make food smell and taste bad the same ones that make you sick? . Tufts.edu . 24 February 2012 . Goldberg J . 28 May 2018.
  24. Di Bella S, Capone A, Bordi E, Johnson E, Musso M, Topino S, Noto P, Petrosillo N . 6 . Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae infection in a 43-year-old Italian man with hypoglobulinemia: a case report and review of the literature . Journal of Medical Case Reports . 5 . 1 . 323 . July 2011 . 21781321 . 3156765 . 10.1186/1752-1947-5-323 . free .
  25. Reptile-Associated Salmonellosis—Selected States, 1998–2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 12 December 2003. 9 October 2011. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20111006191405/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5249a3.htm. 6 October 2011.
  26. Mermin J, Hoar B, Angulo FJ . Iguanas and Salmonella marina infection in children: a reflection of the increasing incidence of reptile-associated salmonellosis in the United States . Pediatrics . 99 . 3 . 399–402 . March 1997 . 9041295 . 10.1542/peds.99.3.399 .
  27. Ongoing investigation into reptile associated salmonella infections. Health Protection Report. 3. 14. 9 April 2009. 12 April 2009. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20090429110621/http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpr/archives/2009/news1409.htm#reptiles. 29 April 2009.
  28. Multi-country outbreak of Salmonella Stanley infections Update. 21 September 2012. EFSA Journal. 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2893. 10. 9. 2893. free.
  29. News: Playing It Safe With Eggs . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) estimates that 142,000 illnesses each year are caused by consuming eggs contaminated with Salmonella. . FDA Food Facts . 2013-03-02 . 2013-02-28 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20130301230156/https://www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/ucm077342.htm . 2013-03-01 .
  30. News: Black J, O'Keefe E . Administration Urged to Boost Food Safety Efforts . 2009-07-08. Washington Post. 2009-07-07. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20110604113540/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/07/AR2009070702343.html?hpid=topnews. 2011-06-04.
  31. Gantois I, Ducatelle R, Pasmans F, Haesebrouck F, Gast R, Humphrey TJ, Van Immerseel F . Mechanisms of egg contamination by Salmonella Enteritidis . FEMS Microbiology Reviews . 33 . 4 . 718–738 . July 2009 . 19207743 . 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2008.00161.x . Eggs can be contaminated on the outer shell surface and internally. Internal contamination can be the result of penetration through the eggshell or by direct contamination of egg contents before oviposition, originating from infection of the reproductive organs. Once inside the egg, the bacteria need to cope with antimicrobial factors in the albumen and vitelline membrane before migration to the yolk can occur . free .
  32. Humphrey TJ . Contamination of egg shell and contents with Salmonella enteritidis: a review . International Journal of Food Microbiology . 21 . 1–2 . 31–40 . January 1994 . 8155476 . 10.1016/0168-1605(94)90197-X . Salmonella enteritidis can contaminate the contents of clean, intact shell eggs as a result of infections of the reproductive tissue of laying hens. The principal site of infection appears to be the upper oviduct. In egg contents, the most important contamination sites are the outside of the vitelline membrane or the albumen surrounding it. In fresh eggs, only a few salmonellae are present. As albumen is an iron-restricted environment, growth only occurs with storage-related changes to vitelline membrane permeability, which allows salmonellae to invade yolk contents. .
  33. Penetration and Growth of Salmonella in Shell Eggs . Journal of Food Science . September 1956 . Stokes JL, Osborne WW, Bayne HG . 21 . 5 . 510–518. 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1956.tb16950.x. Normally, the oviduct of the hen is sterile and therefore the shell and internal contents of the egg are also free of microorganisms (10,16). In some instances, however, the ovaries and oviduct may be infected with Salmonella and these may be deposited inside the egg (12). More frequently, however, the egg becomes contaminated after it is laid..
  34. Okamura M, Kamijima Y, Miyamoto T, Tani H, Sasai K, Baba E . Differences among six Salmonella serovars in abilities to colonize reproductive organs and to contaminate eggs in laying hens . Avian Diseases . 45 . 1 . 61–69 . 2001 . 11332500 . 10.2307/1593012 . when hens were artificially infected to test for transmission rate to yolks: "Mature laying hens were inoculated intravenously with 106 colony-forming units of Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella infantis, Salmonella hadar, Salmonella heidelberg, or Salmonella montevideo to cause the systemic infection. Salmonella Enteritidis was recovered from three yolks of the laid eggs (7.0%), suggesting egg contamination from the transovarian transmission of S. enteritidis." . 1593012 .
  35. Gast RK, Jones DR, Anderson KE, Guraya R, Guard J, Holt PS . In vitro penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis through yolk membranes of eggs from 6 genetically distinct commercial lines of laying hens . Poultry Science . 89 . 8 . 1732–1736 . August 2010 . 20634530 . 10.3382/ps.2009-00440 . 2010-08-20 . live . In this study, egg yolks were infected at the surface of the yolk (vitelline membrane) to determine the percentage of yolk contamination (a measure used to determine egg contamination resistance, with numbers lower than 95% indicating increasing resistance): Overall, the frequency of penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis into the yolk contents of eggs from individual lines of hens ranged from 30 to 58% and the mean concentration of Salmonella Enteritidis in yolk contents after incubation ranged from 0.8 to 2.0 log10 cfu/mL. . free . https://web.archive.org/web/20110724195805/http://ps.fass.org/cgi/content/abstract/89/8/1732 . 2011-07-24 .
  36. Contamination of eggs of laying hens with S. Enteritidis . Veterinary Survey (Tierärztliche Umschau) . Jul–Aug 2009 . Jaeger G . 64 . 7–8 . 344–348 . 2010-08-20 . The migration of the bacterium into the nutritionally rich yolk is constrained by the lysozyme loaded vitelline membrane, and would need warm enough storage conditions within days and weeks. The high concentration on of antibodies of the yolk does not inhibit the Salmonella multiplication. Only seldom does transovarian contamination of the developing eggs with S. enteritidis make this bacterium occur in laid eggs, because of the bactericidal efficacy of the antimicrobial peptides.
  37. Humphrey TJ, Whitehead A, Gawler AH, Henley A, Rowe B . Numbers of Salmonella enteritidis in the contents of naturally contaminated hens' eggs . Epidemiology and Infection . 106 . 3 . 489–496 . June 1991 . 2050203 . 2271858 . 10.1017/S0950268800067546 . Over 5700 hens eggs from 15 flocks naturally infected with Salmonella enteritidis were examined individually for the presence of the organism in either egg contents or on shells. Thirty-two eggs (0·6%) were positive in the contents. In the majority, levels of contamination were low. .
  38. Gast RK, Guraya R, Guard-Bouldin J, Holt PS, Moore RW . Colonization of specific regions of the reproductive tract and deposition at different locations inside eggs laid by hens infected with Salmonella enteritidis or Salmonella heidelberg . Avian Diseases . 51 . 1 . 40–44 . March 2007 . 17461265 . 10.1637/0005-2086(2007)051[0040:cosrot]2.0.co;2 . 2010-08-20 . live . when hens are artificially infected with unrealistically large doses (according to the author): In the present study, groups of laying hens were experimentally infected with large oral doses of Salmonella Heidelberg, Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 13a, or Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 14b. For all of these isolates, the overall frequency of ovarian colonization (34.0%) was significantly higher than the frequency of recovery from either the upper (22.9%) or lower (18.1%) regions of the oviduct. No significant differences were observed between the frequencies of Salmonella isolation from egg yolk and albumen (4.0% and 3.3%, respectively). . 20428394 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100310002101/http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=196876 . 2010-03-10 .
  39. Web site: Salmonella Questions and Answers. 2009-01-21. USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. 2006-09-20. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20090115230327/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Fact_Sheets/Salmonella_Questions_%26_Answers/index.asp. 2009-01-15.
  40. News: FDA issues peanut safety guidelines for foodmakers . Reuters . 2009-03-10 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20090312034238/http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSTRE5296H420090310 . 2009-03-12 .
  41. MacLennan CA, Gondwe EN, Msefula CL, Kingsley RA, Thomson NR, White SA, Goodall M, Pickard DJ, Graham SM, Dougan G, Hart CA, Molyneux ME, Drayson MT . 6 . The neglected role of antibody in protection against bacteremia caused by nontyphoidal strains of Salmonella in African children . The Journal of Clinical Investigation . 118 . 4 . 1553–1562 . April 2008 . 18357343 . 2268878 . 10.1172/JCI33998 .
  42. Nandre RM, Lee JH . Construction of a recombinant-attenuated Salmonella Enteritidis strain secreting Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin B subunit protein and its immunogenicity and protection efficacy against salmonellosis in chickens . Vaccine . 32 . 3 . 425–431 . January 2014 . 24176491 . 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.10.054 .
  43. News: U.S. Forgoes Salmonella Vaccine for Egg Safety. Neuman W . 2010-08-24 . The New York Times. 0362-4331. 2016-03-12. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160417063146/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/25/business/25vaccine.html . 2016-04-17.
  44. Onwuezobe IA, Oshun PO, Odigwe CC . Antimicrobials for treating symptomatic non-typhoidal Salmonella infection . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 11 . 11 . CD001167 . November 2012 . 23152205 . 6532567 . 10.1002/14651858.CD001167.pub2 .
  45. Web site: 2023-04-23. Salmonella Questions and Answers CDC. www.cdc.gov. en-us.
  46. Cummings PL, Sorvillo F, Kuo T . Salmonellosis-related mortality in the United States, 1990-2006 . Foodborne Pathogens and Disease . 7 . 11 . 1393–1399 . November 2010 . 20617938 . 10.1089/fpd.2010.0588 .
  47. News: More Salmonella Is Reported in Chickens. Burros M . March 8, 2006. The New York Times. 2007-05-13. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160109034133/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/08/dining/08well.html?ex=1179288000&en=1f7944fcd0d6fc64&ei=5070. January 9, 2016.
  48. Web site: Salmonella Lurks From Farm to Fork « News21 2011 National Project. foodsafety.news21.com. 2016-09-18. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160602180014/http://foodsafety.news21.com/2011/risks/salmonella/. 2016-06-02.
  49. Web site: Ground Turkey Recall Shows We Still Need Kevin's Law Food Safety News. 2011-08-12. en-US. 2016-09-18. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20161009130352/http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2011/08/ground-turkey-recall-shows-we-still-need-kevins-law/#.V97IVpMrKRt. 2016-10-09.
  50. Web site: Simon B, Yeung M, Grabell I, Hwang M . America's Food Safety System Failed to Stop a Salmonella Epidemic. It's Still Making People Sick. . 2021-11-03. ProPublica. 29 October 2021 . en.
  51. Veelgestelde vragen Salmonella Thompson 15 oktober 2012, Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu [Frequently asked questions Salmonella Thompson 15 October 2012, Netherlands Institute for Public Health and the Environment].
  52. "Salmonella besmetting neemt verder af, 2 november 2012, Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu" [Salmonella infections continue to decline 2 November 2012, Netherlands Institute for Public Healthand the Environment].
  53. Multi-country outbreak of Salmonella Stanley infections Update . European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control . European Food Safety Authority . https://web.archive.org/web/20140413150036/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2893. 2014-04-13 . EFSA Journal . 2012 . 10 . 9 . 2893 . 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2893 .
  54. § 6 and § 7 of the German law on infectious disease prevention, Infektionsschutzgesetz
  55. Web site: PrimaDeli food poisoning cases increase to 153 . 7 December 2007 . Hong L . https://web.archive.org/web/20071208144640/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/316110/1/.html . 8 December 2007 . Channel NewsAsia.
  56. Barbour EK, Ayyash DB, Alturkistni W, Alyahiby A, Yaghmoor S, Iyer A, Yousef J, Kumosani T, Harakeh S . 6 . Impact of sporadic reporting of poultry Salmonella serovars from selected developing countries . Journal of Infection in Developing Countries . 9 . 1 . 001–007 . January 2015 . 25596565 . 10.3855/jidc.5065 . free .
  57. Vågene ÅJ, Herbig A, Campana MG, Robles García NM, Warinner C, Sabin S, Spyrou MA, Andrades Valtueña A, Huson D, Tuross N, Bos KI, Krause J . 6 . Salmonella enterica genomes from victims of a major sixteenth-century epidemic in Mexico . Nature Ecology & Evolution . 2 . 3 . 520–528 . March 2018 . 29335577 . 10.1038/s41559-017-0446-6 . 2018NatEE...2..520V . 3358440 .
  58. Web site: Human Health Hazards Associated with Turtles . U.S. Food and Drug Administration . 2007-06-29 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070609071736/https://www.fda.gov/cvm/turtlereg.htm . 2007-06-09.
  59. Web site: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) .
  60. Oechslin F . Resistance Development to Bacteriophages Occurring during Bacteriophage Therapy . Viruses . 10 . 7 . 351 . June 2018 . 29966329 . 6070868 . 10.3390/v10070351 . free .
  61. García P, Martínez B, Obeso JM, Rodríguez A . Bacteriophages and their application in food safety . Letters in Applied Microbiology . 47 . 6 . 479–485 . December 2008 . 19120914 . 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2008.02458.x . 30899476 .
  62. Olson EG, Micciche AC, Rothrock MJ, Yang Y, Ricke SC . Application of Bacteriophages to Limit Campylobacter in Poultry Production . Frontiers in Microbiology . 12 . 458721 . 2022 . 35069459 . 8766974 . 10.3389/fmicb.2021.458721 . free .
  63. House . D. . Bishop . A. . Parry . C. . Dougan . G. . Wain . J. . October 2001 . Typhoid fever: pathogenesis and disease . Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases . 14 . 5 . 573–578 . 10.1097/00001432-200110000-00011 . 0951-7375 . 11964878 . 33369729.
  64. Voedisch . Sabrina . Koenecke . Christian . David . Sascha . Herbrand . Heike . Förster . Reinhold . Rhen . Mikael . Pabst . Oliver . August 2009 . Mesenteric lymph nodes confine dendritic cell-mediated dissemination of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and limit systemic disease in mice . Infection and Immunity . 77 . 8 . 3170–3180 . 10.1128/IAI.00272-09 . 1098-5522 . 2715677 . 19506012.
  65. Jones . B. D. . Falkow . S. . September 1994 . Identification and characterization of a Salmonella typhimurium oxygen-regulated gene required for bacterial internalization . Infection and Immunity . 62 . 9 . 3745–3752 . 10.1128/iai.62.9.3745-3752.1994 . 0019-9567 . 303026 . 8063389.
  66. Espina . Marianela . Olive . Andrew J. . Kenjale . Roma . Moore . David S. . Ausar . S. Fernando . Kaminski . Robert W. . Oaks . Edwin V. . Middaugh . C. Russell . Picking . William D. . Picking . Wendy L. . August 2006 . IpaD Localizes to the Tip of the Type III Secretion System Needle of Shigella flexneri . Infection and Immunity . 74 . 8 . 4391–4400 . 10.1128/IAI.00440-06 . 0019-9567 . 1539624 . 16861624.
  67. Conlan . J. W. . March 1996 . Neutrophils prevent extracellular colonization of the liver microvasculature by Salmonella typhimurium . Infection and Immunity . 64 . 3 . 1043–1047 . 10.1128/iai.64.3.1043-1047.1996 . 0019-9567 . 173878 . 8641757.
  68. Eckmann . Lars . Kagnoff . Martin F. . 1 November 2001 . Cytokines in host defense against Salmonella . Microbes and Infection . en . 3 . 14 . 1191–1200 . 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01479-4 . 1286-4579 . 11755407.
  69. Miao . Edward A. . Alpuche-Aranda . Celia M. . Dors . Monica . Clark . April E. . Bader . Martin W. . Miller . Samuel I. . Aderem . Alan . June 2006 . Cytoplasmic flagellin activates caspase-1 and secretion of interleukin 1beta via Ipaf . Nature Immunology . 7 . 6 . 569–575 . 10.1038/ni1344 . 1529-2908 . 16648853 . 11172068.
  70. Rydström . Anna . Wick . Mary Jo . 1 May 2007 . Monocyte recruitment, activation, and function in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue during oral Salmonella infection . Journal of Immunology . 178 . 9 . 5789–5801 . 10.4049/jimmunol.178.9.5789 . 0022-1767 . 17442963.
  71. Pham . Oanh H . McSorley . Stephen J. . January 2015 . Protective host immune responses to Salmonella infection . Future Microbiology . 10 . 1 . 101–110 . 10.2217/fmb.14.98 . 1746-0913 . 4323267 . 25598340.
  72. McSorley . Stephen J. . Asch . Sarah . Costalonga . Massimo . Reinhardt . R. Lee . Jenkins . Marc K. . March 2002 . Tracking salmonella-specific CD4 T cells in vivo reveals a local mucosal response to a disseminated infection . Immunity . 16 . 3 . 365–377 . 10.1016/s1074-7613(02)00289-3 . 1074-7613 . 11911822 . free.
  73. Ravindran . Rajesh . Foley . Joseph . Stoklasek . Thomas . Glimcher . Laurie H. . McSorley . Stephen J. . 1 October 2005 . Expression of T-bet by CD4 T cells is essential for resistance to Salmonella infection . Journal of Immunology . 175 . 7 . 4603–4610 . 10.4049/jimmunol.175.7.4603 . 0022-1767 . 16177105.
  74. Weintraub . B C . Eckmann . L . Okamoto . S . Hense . M . Hedrick . S M . Fierer . J . June 1997 . Role of alphabeta and gammadelta T cells in the host response to Salmonella infection as demonstrated in T-cell-receptor-deficient mice of defined Ity genotypes. . Infection and Immunity . 65 . 6 . 2306–2312 . 10.1128/iai.65.6.2306-2312.1997 . 0019-9567 . 175320 . 9169768.
  75. Schulz . Silke M. . Köhler . Gabriele . Holscher . Christoph . Iwakura . Yoichiro . Alber . Gottfried . September 2008 . IL-17A is produced by Th17, gammadelta T cells and other CD4- lymphocytes during infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis and has a mild effect in bacterial clearance . International Immunology . 20 . 9 . 1129–1138 . 10.1093/intimm/dxn069 . 1460-2377 . 18599501.
  76. Lee . Seung-Joo . McLachlan . James B. . Kurtz . Jonathan R. . Fan . Danhua . Winter . Sebastian E. . Baumler . Andreas J. . Jenkins . Marc K. . McSorley . Stephen J. . January 2012 . Temporal expression of bacterial proteins instructs host CD4 T cell expansion and Th17 development . PLOS Pathogens . 8 . 1 . e1002499 . 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002499 . 1553-7374 . 3262010 . 22275869 . free.
  77. Mastroeni . Pietro . Simmons . C. . Fowler . R. . Hormaeche . C. E. . Dougan . G. . January 2000 . Igh-6−/− (B-Cell-Deficient) Mice Fail To Mount Solid Acquired Resistance to Oral Challenge with Virulent Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium and Show Impaired Th1 T-Cell Responses to Salmonella Antigens . Infection and Immunity . 68 . 1 . 46–53 . 10.1128/IAI.68.1.46-53.2000 . 0019-9567 . 97100 . 10603367.
  78. Nanton . Minelva R. . Way . Sing Sing . Shlomchik . Mark J. . McSorley . Stephen J. . 15 December 2012 . Cutting edge: B cells are essential for protective immunity against Salmonella independent of antibody secretion . Journal of Immunology . 189 . 12 . 5503–5507 . 10.4049/jimmunol.1201413 . 1550-6606 . 3518619 . 23150714.
  79. Lee . Seung-Joo . Dunmire . Samantha . McSorley . Stephen J . 17 December 2012 . MHC class-I-restricted CD8 T cells play a protective role during primary Salmonella infection . Immunology Letters . 148 . 2 . 138–143 . 10.1016/j.imlet.2012.10.009 . 0165-2478 . 3540194 . 23089550.
  80. Mastroeni . P. . Villarreal-Ramos . B. . Hormaeche . C. E. . September 1993 . Adoptive transfer of immunity to oral challenge with virulent salmonellae in innately susceptible BALB/c mice requires both immune serum and T cells . Infection and Immunity . 61 . 9 . 3981–3984 . 10.1128/iai.61.9.3981-3984.1993 . 0019-9567 . 281103 . 8359920.
  81. Tumbarello . M. . Tacconelli . E. . Caponera . S. . Cauda . R. . Ortona . L. . September 1995 . The impact of bacteraemia on HIV infection. Nine years experience in a large Italian university hospital . The Journal of Infection . 31 . 2 . 123–131 . 10.1016/s0163-4453(95)92110-9 . 0163-4453 . 8666842.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Salmonellosis".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.