Orders of magnitude (mass) explained

To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following lists describe various mass levels between 10-67 kg and 1052 kg. The least massive thing listed here is a graviton, and the most massive thing is the observable universe. Typically, an object having greater mass will also have greater weight (see mass versus weight), especially if the objects are subject to the same gravitational field strength.

Units of mass

The table at right is based on the kilogram (kg), the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). The kilogram is the only standard unit to include an SI prefix (kilo-) as part of its name. The gram (10−3 kg) is an SI derived unit of mass. However, the names of all SI mass units are based on gram, rather than on kilogram; thus 103 kg is a megagram (106 g), not a *kilokilogram.

The tonne (t) is an SI-compatible unit of mass equal to a megagram (Mg), or 103 kg. The unit is in common use for masses above about 103 kg and is often used with SI prefixes. For example, a gigagram (Gg) or 109 g is 103 tonnes, commonly called a kilotonne.

Other units

Other units of mass are also in use. Historical units include the stone, the pound, the carat, and the grain.

For subatomic particles, physicists use the mass equivalent to the energy represented by an electronvolt (eV). At the atomic level, chemists use the mass of one-twelfth of a carbon-12 atom (the dalton). Astronomers use the mass of the sun .

The least massive things: below 10-24 kg

Unlike other physical quantities, mass–energy does not have an a priori expected minimal quantity, or an observed basic quantum as in the case of electric charge. Planck's law allows for the existence of photons with arbitrarily low energies. Consequently, there can only ever be an experimental upper bound on the mass of a supposedly massless particle; in the case of the photon, this confirmed upper bound is of the order of = .

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10-671.07 kgGraviton, upper bound (6 eV/c2)[1]
10-404.2 kgMass equivalent of the energy of a photon at the peak of the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation (0.235 meV/c2)[2]
10-361.8 kg1 eV/c2, the mass equivalent of one electronvolt[3]
3.6 kgElectron neutrino, upper limit on mass (2 eV/c2)[4]
10-33
quectogram (qg)
10-319.11 kgElectron (511 keV/c2), the lightest elementary particle with a measured nonzero rest mass[5]
10-30
rontogram (rg) 		3.0–5.5 kgUp quark (as a current quark) (1.7–3.1 MeV/c2)[6]
10-28 1.9 kgMuon (106 MeV/c2)[7]
10-27
yoctogram (yg) <		-- 10e-27 Kilograms is 10e-24 grams-->1.661 kgDalton (Da), a.k.a. unified atomic mass unit (u)
1.673 kgProton (938.3 MeV/c2)[8] [9]
1.674 kgHydrogen atom, the lightest atom
1.675 kgNeutron (939.6 MeV/c2)[10] [11]
10-261.2 kgLithium atom (6.941 Da)
3.0 kgWater molecule (18.015 Da)
8.0 kgTitanium atom (47.867 Da)
10-251.1 kgCopper atom (63.546 Da)
1.6 kgZ boson (91.2 GeV/c2)[12]
2.2 kgHiggs boson (125 GeV/c2)
3.1 kgTop quark (173 GeV/c2),[13] the heaviest known elementary particle
3.2 kgCaffeine molecule (194 Da)
3.5 kgLead-208 atom
4.9 kgOganesson-294 atom, the heaviest known nuclide

10−24 to 10−18 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10-24
zeptogram (zg)		1.2 kgBuckyball molecule (720 Da)
10-231.4 kgUbiquitin, a small protein (8.6 kDa)[14]
5.5 kgA typical protein (median size of roughly 300 amino acids ≈ 33 kDa)[15]
10-221.1 kgHaemoglobin A molecule in blood (64.5 kDa)[16]
10-21
attogram (ag)		1.65 kgDouble-stranded DNA molecule consisting of 1,578 base pairs (995 kDa)[17]
4.3 kgProkaryotic ribosome (2.6 MDa)[18]
7.1 kgEukaryotic ribosome (4.3 MDa)
7.6 kgBrome mosaic virus, a small virus (4.6 MDa)[19]
10-203 kgSynaptic vesicle in rats (16.1 ± 3.8 MDa)[20]
6.8 kgTobacco mosaic virus (41 MDa)[21]
10-191.1 kgNuclear pore complex in yeast (66 MDa)[22]
2.5 kgHuman adenovirus (150 MDa)[23]

10−18 to 10−12 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10-18
femtogram (fg)		1 kgHIV-1 virus[24] [25]
4.7 kgDNA sequence of length 4.6 Mbp, the weight of the E. coli genome[26]
10-17~1 kgVaccinia virus, a large virus[27]
1.1 kgMass equivalent of 1 joule[28]
10-163 kgProchlorococcus cyanobacteria, the smallest (and possibly most plentiful)[29] photosynthetic organism on Earth[30]
10-15
picogram (pg)		1 kgE. coli bacterium (wet weight)[31]
6 kgDNA in a typical diploid human cell (approximate)
10-142.2 kgHuman sperm cell[32]
6 kgYeast cell (quite variable)[33] [34]
10-131.5 kgDunaliella salina, a green alga (dry weight)[35]

10−12 to 10−6 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10-12
nanogram (ng)		1 kgAverage human cell (1 nanogram)[36]
2–3 kgHeLa human cell[37] [38] [39]
8 kgGrain of birch pollen[40]
10-11  
10-102.5 kgGrain of maize pollen[41]
3.5 kgVery fine grain of sand (0.063 mm diameter, 350 nanograms)
10-9
microgram (μg)		3.6 kgHuman ovum[42] [43]
2.4 kgUS RDA for vitamin B12 for adults[44]
10-8Speculated approximate lower limit of the mass of a primordial black hole
US RDA for vitamin D for adults[45]
~2 kgUncertainty in the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) (±~20μg)[46]
2.2 kgPlanck mass,[47] can be expressed as the mass of a 2 Planck Length radius black hole
~7 kgOne eyelash hair (approximate)[48]
10-71.5 kgUS RDA for iodine for adults[49]
2–3 kgFruit fly (dry weight)[50] [51]

10−6 to 1 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10-6
milligram (mg)		2.5 kgMosquitoes, common smaller species (about 2.5 milligrams),[52] grain of salt or sand,[53] medicines are typically expressed in milligrams[54]
10-5
centigram (cg)		1.1 kgSmall granule of quartz (2 mm diameter, 11 milligrams)[55]
2 kgAdult housefly (Musca domestica, 21.4 milligrams)[56]
10-4
decigram (dg)		0.27–2.0 kgRange of amounts of caffeine in one cup of coffee (27–200 milligrams)[57]
1.5 kgA frame of 35mm motion picture film (157 milligrams)
2 kgMetric carat (200 milligrams)
10-3
gram (g)		1 kgOne cubic centimeter of water (1 gram)[58]
1 kgUS dollar bill (1 gram)[59]
~1 kgTwo raisins (approximately 1 gram)[60]
~8 kgCoins of one euro (7.5 grams),[61] one U.S. dollar (8.1 grams)[62] and one Canadian loonie (7 grams [pre-2012], 6.27 grams [2012-])[63]
10-2
decagram (dag)		1.2 kgMass of one mole (6.02214 atoms) of carbon-12 (12 grams)
1.37 kgAmount of ethanol defined as one standard drink in the U.S. (13.7 grams)[64]
2–4 kgAdult mouse (Mus musculus, 20–40 grams)[65]
2.8 kgOunce (avoirdupois) (28.3495 grams)
4.7 kgMass equivalent of the energy that is 1 megaton of TNT equivalent[66] [67]
10−1
hectogram   (hg)		0.1-0.2 kgAn orange (100–200 grams)[68]
0.142-0.149 kgA baseball used in the major league.[69]
0.454 kgPound (avoirdupois) (453.6 grams)

1 kg to 105 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
1 kg
kilogram (kg)		1 kgOne litre (0.001 m3) of water[70]
1–3 kgSmallest breed of dog (Chihuahua)[71]
1–3 kgTypical laptop computer, 2010[72]
1–3 kgAdult domestic tortoise
2.5–4 kgNewborn human baby[73]
4.0 kg Women's shot[74]
4–5 kgHousecat[75]
7.26 kgMen's shot
1019–27 kgMedium-sized dog[76]
10–30 kgA CRT computer monitor or television set
50 kgLarge dog breed (Great Dane)
70 kgAdult human[77]
102130–180 kgMature lion, female (130 kg) and male (180 kg)[78]
200–250 kgGiant tortoise
240–450 kgGrand piano[79] [80]
400–900 kgDairy cow[81]
500–500,000 kgA teaspoon (5 ml) of white dwarf material (0.5–500 tonnes)[82] [83]
635 kgHeaviest human in recorded history (Jon Brower Minnoch)
907.2 kg1 short ton (2000 pounds - U.S.)
103
megagram (Mg)		1000 kg1 tonne (U.S. spelling: metric ton)
1000 kg1 cubic metre of water
1016.05 kgTon (British) / 1 long ton (2240 pounds - U.S.)
1300–1600 kgTypical passenger cars[84]
2700–6000 kgAdult elephant[85]
1041.1 kgHubble Space Telescope (11 tonnes)[86]
1.2 kgLargest elephant on record (12 tonnes)[87]
1.4 kgBig Ben (bell) (14 tonnes)[88]
2.7 kgENIAC computer, 1946 (30 tonnes)[89]
4 kgMaximum gross mass (truck + load combined) of a semi-trailer truck in the EU (40–44 tonnes)[90]
5–6 kgTank
Bulldozer (50–60 tonnes)
6.0 kgLargest single-piece meteorite, Hoba West Meteorite (60 tonnes)
7.3 kgLargest dinosaur, Argentinosaurus (73 tonnes)[91]
1051.74-1.83 kgOperational empty weight of a Boeing 747-300
1.8 kgLargest animal ever, a blue whale (180 tonnes)[92]
4.2 kgInternational Space Station (417 tonnes)[93]
6 kgWorld's heaviest aircraft: Antonov An-225 (maximum take-off mass: 600 tonnes, payload: 250 tonnes)[94]

106 to 1011 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
106
gigagram (Gg)		1 kgTrunk of the giant sequoia tree named General Sherman, largest living tree by trunk volume (1121 tonnes)[95]
2.0 kgLaunch mass of the Space Shuttle (2041 tonnes)[96]
6 kgLargest clonal colony, the quaking aspen named Pando (largest living organism) (6000 tonnes)[97]
7.8 kgVirginia-class nuclear submarine (submerged weight)[98]
1071 kgAnnual production of Darjeeling tea[99]
5.2 kgRMS Titanic when fully loaded (52,000 tonnes)[100]
9.97 kgHeaviest train ever: Australia's BHP Iron Ore, 2001 record (99,700 tonnes)[101]
1086.6 kgLargest ship and largest mobile man-made object, Seawise Giant, when fully loaded (660,000 tonnes)[102]
7 kgHeaviest (non-pyramid) building, Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest, Romania[103]
109
teragram (Tg)		4.3 kgAmount of matter converted into energy by the Sun each second[104]
6 kgGreat Pyramid of Giza[105]

1010

6 kgAmount of concrete in the Three Gorges Dam, the world's largest concrete structure[106] [107]
1011~1 kgThe mass of a primordial black hole with an evaporation time equal to the age of the universe[108]
2 kgAmount of water stored in London storage reservoirs (0.2 km3)[109]
6 kgTotal mass of the world's human population[110]
5 kgTotal biomass of Antarctic krill, one of the most plentiful animal species on the planet in terms of biomass[111]

1012 to 1017 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
1012
petagram (Pg)		0.8–2.1 kgGlobal biomass of fish[112]
4 kgGlobal annual human food production[113]
4 kgWorld crude oil production in 2009 (3,843 Mt)[114]
5.5 kgA teaspoon (5 ml) of neutron star material (5000 million tonnes)[115]
10131 kgMass of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko[116]
4 kgGlobal annual human carbon dioxide emission[117] [118]
10141.05 kgGlobal net primary production – the total mass of carbon fixed in organic compounds by photosynthesis each year on Earth[119]
7.2 kgTotal carbon stored in Earth's atmosphere[120]
1015
exagram (Eg)		2.0 kgTotal carbon stored in the terrestrial biosphere[121]
3.5 kgTotal carbon stored in coal deposits worldwide[122]
1016 1 kg951 Gaspra, the first asteroid ever to be closely approached by a spacecraft (rough estimate)[123] |-|1 kg|Rough estimate of the total carbon content of all organisms on Earth.[124] |-|3 kg|Rough estimate of everything produced by the human species.[125] |-|3.8 kg|Total carbon stored in the oceans.[126] |-|1017|1.6 kg|Prometheus, a shepherd satellite for the inner edge of Saturn's F Ring[127] |}

1018 to 1023 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
1018
zettagram (Zg)		5.1 kgEarth's atmosphere[128]
5.6 kgHyperion, a moon of Saturn
10193 kg3 Juno, one of the larger asteroids in the asteroid belt[129]
3 kgThe rings of Saturn[130]
10209.4 kgCeres, dwarf planet within the asteroid belt[131]
1021
yottagram (Yg)		1.4 kgEarth's oceans[132]
1.5 kgCharon, the largest moon of Pluto[133]
2.9–3.7 kgThe asteroid belt[134]
10221.3 kgPluto
2.1 kgTriton, largest moon of Neptune[135]
7.3 kgEarth's Moon[136]
10231.3 kgTitan, largest moon of Saturn[137]
1.5 kgGanymede, largest moon of Jupiter[138]
3.3 kgMercury[139]
6.4 kgMars[140]

1024 to 1029 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
1024
ronnagram (Rg) <		-- 10e24 Kilograms is 10e27 grams-->4.9 kgVenus[141]
6.0 kgEarth[142]
10253 kgOort cloud[143]
8.7 kgUranus[144]
10261.0 kgNeptune[145]
5.7 kgSaturn[146]
1027
quettagram (Qg) 		1.9 kgJupiter[147]
10282–14 kgBrown dwarfs (approximate)[148]
10293 kgBarnard's Star, a nearby red dwarf[149]

1030 to 1035 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10302 kgThe Sun[150] (one solar mass or = 1.989 kg)
2.8 kgChandrasekhar limit [151] [152]
10314 kgBetelgeuse, a red supergiant star [153]
10324–7 kgR136a1, the most massive of known stars (230 to 345)[154]
6–8 kgHyades star cluster (300 to 400)[155]
10331.6 kgPleiades star cluster [156]
1034
1035~1035 kgTypical globular cluster in the Milky Way (overall range: 3 to 4)[157]
2 kgLow end of mass range for giant molecular clouds (1 to 1)[158] [159]
7.3 kgJeans mass of a giant molecular cloud at 100 K and density 30 atoms per cubic centimeter;[160]
possible example: Orion molecular cloud complex

1036 to 1041 kg

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10361.79 kgThe entire Carina complex.
2.4 kgThe Gould Belt of stars, including the Sun [161]
7–8 kgThe supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way, associated with the radio source Sagittarius A* [162]
8 kgOmega centauri, the largest globular cluster in the Milky Way, containing approximately 10 million stars.
1037  
1038  
1039  
10404.17 kgNGC 4889, the largest measured supermassive black hole, weighing 21 billion solar masses
10414 kgVisible mass of the Milky Way galaxy[163]

The most massive things: 1042 kg and greater

Factor (kg)ValueItem
10421.2 kgMilky Way galaxy [164]
2–3 kgLocal Group of galaxies, including the Milky Way
10435.37 kgESO 146-5, the heaviest known galaxy in the universe[165]
1044  
10451–2 kgLocal or Virgo Supercluster of galaxies, including the Local Group [166]
1046  
10472 kgLaniakea Supercluster of galaxies, which encompasses the Virgo supercluster
10482 kgPisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a galaxy filament that includes the Laniakea Supercluster.
10494 kgHercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, the largest structure in the known universe
1050  
1051  
10524.4506 kgMass of the observable universe as estimated by NASA
1.4 kgMass of the observable universe as estimated by the U.S. National Solar Observatory[167]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Zyla . P. . etal . . 2020 . Review of Particle Physics: Gauge and Higgs bosons . https://web.archive.org/web/20200930163307/https://pdg.lbl.gov/2020/tables/rpp2020-sum-gauge-higgs-bosons.pdf . 2020-09-30 . live .
  2. Fixsen . D. J. . 2009 . The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background . . 707 . 2 . 916–920 . 0911.1955 . 2009ApJ...707..916F . 10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916. 119217397 .
  3. Web site: Conversion from eV to kg . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-10-19 .
  4. "The most sensitive analysis on the neutrino mass [...] is compatible with a neutrino mass of zero. Considering its uncertainties this value corresponds to an upper limit on the electron neutrino mass of m<2.2 eV/c2 (95% Confidence Level)" The Mainz Neutrino Mass Experiment
  5. Web site: CODATA Value: electron mass . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-08-21 .
  6. Web site: K. Nakamura . Particle Data Group . Particle Data Group . PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)' . . 2011 . 2011-08-08.
  7. Web site: CODATA Value: muon mass . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-08-23 .
  8. Web site: CODATA Value: proton mass . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-08-23 .
  9. Web site: CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-08-23 .
  10. Web site: CODATA Value: neutron mass . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-08-23 .
  11. Web site: CODATA Value: neutron mass energy equivalent in MeV . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-08-23 .
  12. Amsler . C. . Doser . M. . Antonelli . M. . Asner . D. . Babu . K. . Baer . H. . Band . H. . Barnett . R. . Bergren . E. . Beringer . J. . Bernardi . G. . Bertl . W. . Bichsel . H. . Biebel . O. . Bloch . P. . Blucher . E. . Blusk . S. . Cahn . R. N. . Carena . M. . Caso . C. . Ceccucci . A. . Chakraborty . D. . Chen . M. -C. . Chivukula . R. S. . Cowan . G. . Dahl . O. . d'Ambrosio . G. . Damour . T. . De Gouvêa . A. . Degrand . T. . Review of Particle Physics⁎ . 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018 . Physics Letters B . 667 . 1 . 1 . 2008 . https://archive.today/20120712165412/http://pdglive.lbl.gov/Rsummary.brl?nodein=S044&fsizein=1 . dead . 2012-07-12 . 2008PhLB..667....1A . 29 . 1854/LU-685594 . 227119789 . free .
  13. Web site: K. Nakamura . Particle Data Group . Particle Data Group . PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)' . . 2011 . 2011-08-08.
  14. Web site: Ubiquitin . Channel Proteomes . 2011-10-12 . 4 October 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151004152502/http://www.channel-proteomes.com/projects/cav2env/proteins/P62989 . dead .
  15. Web site: How big is the "average" protein? . Ron Milo . 2011-10-13 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110808031350/http://www.weizmann.ac.il/plants/Milo/images/proteinSize110623Clean.pdf . 2011-08-08 . dead .
  16. Van Beekvelt MC . Colier WN . Wevers RA. Van Engelen BG . Performance of near-infrared spectroscopy in measuring local O2 consumption and blood flow in skeletal muscle . J Appl Physiol . 90 . 2 . 511–519 . Feb 2001 . 11160049 . 8750-7587 . 10.1152/jappl.2001.90.2.511. 15468862 .
  17. From attograms to Daltons: Cornell NEMS device detects the mass of a single DNA molecule http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/May05/DNAcount.ws.html. Retrieved 2010-10-14
  18. Web site: Eukaryotic Ribosome . ETH Zurich . 2011-10-09 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110911130032/http://www.mol.biol.ethz.ch/groups/ban_group/Ribosome . 2011-09-11 . dead .
  19. Bockstahler . L. . Kaesberg . P. . The Molecular Weight and Other Biophysical Properties of Bromegrass Mosaic Virus . 10.1016/S0006-3495(62)86836-2 . Biophysical Journal . 2 . 1 . 1–9 . 1962 . 19431313. 1366384 . 1962BpJ.....2....1B .
  20. Web site: Atomic mass of synaptic vesicle – Rat Rattus . BioNumbers . 2011-10-09 .
  21. Web site: Molecular weight – Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) – BNID 105958 . BioNumbers . 2011-10-09 .
  22. Rout . M. P. . Blobel . G. . Isolation of the yeast nuclear pore complex . 10.1083/jcb.123.4.771 . The Journal of Cell Biology . 123 . 4 . 771–783 . 1993 . 8227139. 2200146 .
  23. Liu . H. . Jin . L. . Koh . S. B. S. . Atanasov . I. . Schein . S. . Wu . L. . Zhou . Z. H. . 10.1126/science.1187433 . Atomic Structure of Human Adenovirus by Cryo-EM Reveals Interactions Among Protein Networks . Science . 329 . 5995 . 1038–1043 . 2010 . 20798312. 3412078. 2010Sci...329.1038L .
  24. Web site: Virus diameter of HIV-1 - HIV . BioNumbers . 2011-11-01 .
  25. Calculated : volume = 4/3 × π × (126e−9 m / 2)3 = 1.05e−21 m3. Assume density = 1 g/cm3 => mass = 1.05e−21 m3 × 1e3 kg/m3 = 1.05e−18 kg
  26. Science. Frederick R. Blattner. Guy Plunkett III. etal . 277. 10.1126/science.277.5331.1453 . The Complete Genome Sequence of Escherichia coli K-12 . 9278503. 1453–1462 . 1997. 5331 . free.
  27. Web site: Mass of virion - Virus Vaccinia . BioNumbers . 2011-11-01 .
  28. Web site: Conversion from J to kg . NIST . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . 2011-08-23 .
  29. Web site: Prochlorococcus marinus MIT 9313 - Home . Joint Genome Institute . 2011-11-01 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150520090323/http://genome.jgi-psf.org/prom9/prom9.home.html . 2015-05-20 . dead .
  30. Web site: Size (diameter) of most abundant cyanobacteri - Prochlorococcus - BNID 101520 . BioNumbers . 2011-11-01 .
  31. Web site: E. coli Statistics . The CyberCell Database . 2011-09-11 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120318223046/http://ccdb.wishartlab.com/CCDB/cgi-bin/STAT_NEW.cgi . 2012-03-18 . dead .
  32. M. R. Curry, J. D. Millar, S. M. Tamuli & P. F. Watson, "Surface Area & Volume Measurements for Ram & Human Spermatozoa," Biology of Reproduction, 55, 6 (1996‑12‑01): 1325–32.
  33. Web site: How big is a yeast cell . Ron Milo . 2011-10-09 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110808031933/http://www.weizmann.ac.il/plants/Milo/images/YeastSize-Feb2010.pdf . 2011-08-08 .
  34. Web site: "Rule of thumb" for cell mass . BioNumbers . 2011-10-09 .
  35. Web site: Cell dry weight - Green algae Dunaliella salina . BioNumbers . 2011-10-14 .
  36. Web site: A quick introduction to elements of biology - cells, molecules, genes, functional genomics, microarrays . European Bioinformatics Institute . if we estimate the average weight of a human cell as about 10^-9 g.
  37. Web site: Measured HeLa cell mass . BioNumbers . 2011-10-09 .
  38. Web site: Estimated HeLa cell mass . BioNumbers . 2011-10-09 .
  39. Measurement of Single Cell Refractive Index, Dry Mass, Volume, and Density Using a Transillumination Microscope. Kevin G.. Phillips. Steven L.. Jacques. Owen J. T.. McCarty. 13 September 2012. 109. 11. 118105. 10.1103/physrevlett.109.118105. 23005682. 2012PhRvL.109k8105P. Physical Review Letters. 3621783.
  40. Schäppi . G. F. . Suphioglu . C. . Taylor . P. E. . Knox . R. B. . Concentrations of the major birch tree allergen Bet v 1 in pollen and respirable fine particles in the atmosphere . 10.1016/S0091-6749(97)70170-2 . Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology . 100 . 5 . 656–661 . 1997 . 9389296. "the total pollen grain mass of approximately 7.85 ng"
  41. Fonseca . A. E. . Westgate . M. E. . Grass . L. . Dornbos . J. . Tassel Morphology as an Indicator of Potential Pollen Production in Maize . 10.1094/CM-2003-0804-01-RS . Crop Management . 2003 . 2 . 1–15 . 2015-08-28 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130331145618/http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/cm/research/2003/tassel/ . 2013-03-31 . dead . "The dry weight of individual pollen grains has been estimated at 250 ng"
  42. Mass calculated from volume assuming density of 1 g/mL
  43. Web site: Volume of human oocyte - Human Homo sapiens . BioNumbers . 2011-11-01 .
  44. Web site: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin B12 . Office of Dietary Supplements . 2011-10-02 .
  45. Web site: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D . Office of Dietary Supplements . 2011-10-02 .
  46. Report to the CGPM, 14th meeting of the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU), April 2001, 2. (ii); General Conference on Weights and Measures, 22nd Meeting, October 2003, which stated "The kilogram is in need of a new definition because the mass of the prototype is known to vary by several parts in 108 over periods of time of the order of a month ..." (3.2MB ZIP file, here).
  47. Web site: CODATA Value: Planck mass . 2011-09-30 . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty . NIST.
  48. Web site: Weigh An Eyelash . National Semiconductor . 2011-10-02 . 7 February 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120207230146/http://www.national.com/en/videos/MiligramScale.html . dead .
  49. Web site: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Iodine . Office of Dietary Supplements . 2011-10-02 .
  50. Web site: Mean dry mass (male) - Fruit fly . BioNumbers . 2011-10-14 .
  51. Web site: Mean dry mass (female) - Fruit fly . BioNumbers . 2011-10-14 .
  52. Web site: Frequently Asked Questions . American Mosquito Control Association . 2011-08-23 . Smaller species found around houses commonly weigh about 2.5 milligrams. . https://web.archive.org/web/20110918143050/http://www.mosquito.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=45&Itemid=122#weigh . 2011-09-18 . dead .
  53. Web site: Metric Mass (Weight). 2019-09-19.
  54. Web site: Mass. 2019-09-19. 8 July 2017.
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