Puppet state explained
A puppet state, puppet régime, puppet government or dummy government is a state that is de jure independent but de facto completely dependent upon an outside power and subject to its orders.[1] Puppet states have nominal sovereignty, except that a foreign power effectively exercises control through economic or military support.[2] By leaving a local government in existence the outside power evades all responsibility, while at the same time successfully paralysing the local government they tolerate.[3]
Puppet states differ from allies, who choose their actions of their own initiative or in accordance with treaties they have voluntarily entered. Puppet states are forced into legally endorsing actions already taken by a foreign power.
Characteristics
Puppet states are "endowed with the outward symbols of authority",[4] such as a name, flag, anthem, constitution, law codes, motto, and government, but in reality are appendages of another state which creates,[5] sponsors or otherwise controls the puppet government. International law does not recognise occupied puppet states as legitimate.[6]
Puppet states can cease to be puppets through:
- military defeat of the "master" state (as in Europe and Asia in 1945),
- absorption into the master state (as in the early Soviet Union),
- achievement of independence
Terminology
The term is a metaphor which compares a state or government to a puppet controlled by a puppeteer with strings.[7] The first recorded use of the term "puppet government" was in 1884, in reference to the Khedivate of Egypt.[8]
In the Middle Ages, vassal states existed based on delegation of the rule of a country by a king to noble men of lower rank. Since the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, the concept of a nation came into existence where sovereignty was connected more to the people who inhabited the land than to the nobility who owned the land.
An earlier similar concept is suzerainty, the control of the external affairs of one state by another.
Nineteenth-century examples
French revolutionary and Napoleonic clients
The Batavian Republic was established in the Netherlands under French revolutionary protection.
In Italy, the French First Republic encouraged a proliferation of small republics in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, known as sister republics.
In Eastern Europe, Napoleon's First French Empire established the Polish client state of the Duchy of Warsaw.[9]
British Empire
In 1896, Britain established a state in Zanzibar.
Early twentieth-century examples
See main article: List of World War I puppet states.
Established by the German Empire
By others
World War II
Imperial Japan
During Japan's imperial period, and particularly during the Pacific War (parts of which are considered the Pacific theatre of World War II), the Imperial Japanese government established a number of dependent states.
Nominally sovereign states
- Azad Hind (1943–1945), officially known as Provisional Government of Free India – established by Indian nationalists in Singapore in October 1943 by Subhas Chandra Bose and was in charge of Indian expatriates and military personnel in Japanese Southeast Asia. It had nominal sovereignty over Axis controlled Indian territories, and would enjoy the prospective control of Indian territory to be captured in a future invasion of British India. Of the territory of post-independence India, the government took charge of Kohima (after it fell to the Japanese-INA offensive), parts of Manipur that fell to both the Japanese 15th Army and the INA, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The government had diplomatic relationships with eleven countries including Germany, Italy, Japan, Philippines, and the Soviet Union. It was headed by Subhas Chandra Bose, who was the Head of the State and Prime Minister, who was also the Supreme Commander of the Indian National Army. The government had its own cabinet and banks.
- State of Burma (1942–1945) – Head of State: Ba Maw
- Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945) – Headed by Jose P. Laurel as President
- Empire of Vietnam (1945) – Emperor Bảo Đại's regime with Trần Trọng Kim as Prime Minister after proclaiming independence from France
- Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945) – King Norodom Sihanouk's regime with Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister after proclaiming independence from France
- Kingdom of Luang Prabang (1945) – King Sisavang Vong's regime with Prince Phetsarath as Prime Minister after proclaiming independence from France
In China
Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy
Several European governments under the domination of Germany and Italy during World War II have been described as "puppet régimes". The formal means of control in occupied Europe varied greatly. These states fall into several categories.
Existing states in alliance with Germany and Italy
Existing states under German or Italian rule
- Albania under Nazi Germany (1943–1944) – The Kingdom of Albania was an Italian protectorate and puppet regime. Italy invaded Albania in 1939 and ended the rule of King Zog I. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy added King of Albania to his titles and Zog was exiled. King Victor Emmanuel and Shefqet Bej Verlaci, Albanian Prime Minister and Head of State, controlled the Italian protectorate. Verlaci was replaced by Mustafa Merlika Kruja on December 3, 1941. The Germans occupied Albania when Italy exited the war in 1943 and Ibrahim Bej Biçaku, Mehdi Bej Frashëri, and Rexhep Bej Mitrovica became successive Prime Minister under the Nazis.
- Vichy France (1940–1942/4) – The Vichy French regime of Philippe Pétain had limited autonomy from 1940 to 1942, and depended heavily on Germany. The Vichy government controlled many of France's colonies and the unoccupied part of France and enjoyed international recognition. In 1942, the Germans occupied the portion of France administered by the Vichy government in Case Anton and installed a new leadership under Pierre Laval, ending much of Vichy France's international legitimacy.
- Monaco (1942–1944) – In 1943, the Italian Army invaded and occupied Monaco, setting up a fascist administration. Shortly thereafter, following Benito Mussolini's deposal in Italy, the German Army occupied Monaco and began deporting the Jewish population. Among them was René Blum, founder of Monaco's Ballet de l'Opera, who died in a Nazi extermination camp.
New states formed to reflect national aspirations
States and governments under the control of Germany and Italy
Italian Social Republic
- Italian Social Republic (1943–1945, known also as the Republic of Salò) – General Pietro Badoglio and King Victor Emmanuel III withdrew Italy from the Axis powers and moved the government to Southern Italy, already controlled by the Allies. In response, the Germans occupied Northern Italy and founded the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) with Benito Mussolini as its "Head of State" and "Minister of Foreign Affairs". While the RSI government had some trappings of an independent state, it was completely dependent both economically and politically on Germany.
British examples during and after World War II
The Axis demand for oil and the concern of the Allies that Germany would look to the oil-rich Middle East for a solution, caused the invasion of Iraq by the United Kingdom and the invasion of Iran by the UK and the Soviet Union. Pro-Axis governments in both Iraq and Iran were removed and replaced with Allied-dominated governments.
- Kingdom of Iraq (1941–1947) – Iraq was important to the United Kingdom because of its position on the route to India. Iraq also could provide strategic oil reserves. But due to the UK's weakness early in the war, Iraq backed away from the pre-war Anglo-Iraqi Alliance. On 1 April 1941, the Hashemite monarchy in Iraq was overthrown by a pro-German coup d'état under Rashid Ali. The Rashid Ali regime began negotiations with the Axis powers and military aid was quickly sent to Mosul via Vichy French-controlled Syria. The Germans provided a squadron of twin-engine fighters and a squadron of medium bombers. The Italians provided a squadron of biplane fighters. In mid-April 1941, a brigade of the 10th Indian Infantry Division landed at Basra (Operation Sabine). On 30 April, British forces at RAF Habbaniya were besieged by a numerically inferior Iraqi force. On 2 May, the British launched pre-emptive airstrikes against the Iraqis and the Anglo-Iraqi War began. By the end of May, the siege of RAF Habbaniya was lifted, Fallujah was taken, Baghdad was surrounded by British forces, and the pro-German government of Rashid Ali collapsed. Rashid Ali and his supporters fled the country. The Hashemite monarchy under King Faisal II was restored, and declared war on the Axis powers in January 1942. British and Commonwealth forces remained in Iraq until 26 October 1947.[20]
- Imperial State of Iran (1941–1943) – German workers in Iran caused both the UK and the Soviet Union to question Iran's neutrality. In addition, Iran's geographical position was important to the Allies. As a result, the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran (Operation Countenance) was launched in August 1941. The following month, Reza Shah Pahlavi was forced to abdicate his throne and went into exile. He was replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was willing to declare war on the Axis powers. By January 1942, the UK and the Soviet Union agreed to end their occupation of Iran six months after the end of the war.
Soviet examples after 1939
Puppet states later absorbed into the Soviet Union
- Tuvan People's Republic (1921–1944) – Achieved independence from China by means of local nationalist revolutions only to come under the domination of the Soviet Union in the 1920s. In 1944, Tannu Tuva was absorbed into the USSR.
- Finnish Democratic Republic (1939–1940) – The Finnish Democratic Republic was a short-lived republic in the parts of Finland that were occupied by the Soviet Union during the Winter War. It was also known as the "Terijoki Government", as Terijoki was the first town captured by the Soviets. The Finnish Democratic Republic was intended to govern Finland after Soviet conquest.[21] [22]
- Azerbaijan People's Government (1940–1946) – A short-lived state in Iranian Azerbaijan after World War II.[23]
- Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) – In June 1940, the Republic of Latvia was occupied by the Soviet Union and in July a government proclaimed Soviet power. In August 1940, Latvia was illegally annexed by the USSR.
- Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) – In June 1940, the Republic of Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union and in July a government proclaimed Soviet power. In August 1940, Lithuania was illegally annexed by the USSR.
- Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) – In June 1940, the Republic of Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union and in July a government proclaimed Soviet power.[24] [25] In August 1940, Estonia was illegally annexed by the USSR.[26]
Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe
As Soviet forces prevailed over the German Army on the Eastern Front during World War II, the Soviet Union supported the creation of communist governments throughout Eastern Europe. Specifically, the People's Republics in Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Albania were dominated by the Soviet Union. While all of these People's Republics did not "officially" take power until after WWII ended, they all have roots in pro-communist wartime governments.
Soviet puppet states in Central Asia
- Republic of Mahabad (1946–1947) – Officially known as the Republic of Kurdistan and established in several provinces of northwestern Iran, or what is known as Iranian Kurdistan and was a short-lived republic that sought Kurdish autonomy within the limits of the Iranian state. Iran retook control in December and the leaders of the state were executed in March 1947 in Mahabad.
- Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1991)
Other states under Soviet influence
Yugoslavia was a communist state closely linked to the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia retained autonomy within its own borders. After the Tito–Stalin split in 1948, the relationship between the two countries deteriorated significantly. Yugoslavia was expelled from the international organisations of the Eastern Bloc. After Stalin's death and a period of de-Stalinization by Nikita Khrushchev, peace was restored, but the relationship between the two countries was never completely mended. Yugoslavia continued to pursue independent policies and became the founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.
The Soviet Union continued to exert some influence over the People's Republic of China before the Sino-Soviet split in 1961. Some other countries which once were Soviet puppet governments included Mongolia, North Korea, North Vietnam, the reunified Vietnam and Cuba, all of which had substantial dependence on the Soviet economy, military, science, and technology. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, most of its former satellites moved towards democratisation. Only China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam remain one-party communist states.
In 1992, all references to Marxism–Leninism in the constitution of North Korea were dropped by the Supreme People's Assembly and replaced with Juche.[27] In 2009, the constitution was quietly amended to not only remove all Marxist–Leninist references from the first draft, but also drop all references to communism.[28]
Examples before and during decolonisation
See also: Françafrique. In some cases, the process of decolonisation has been managed by the decolonising power to create a neo-colony, that is a nominally independent state whose economy and politics permits continued foreign domination. Neo-colonies are not normally considered puppet states.
Dutch East Indies
The Netherlands formed several puppet states in the former Dutch East Indies as part of its effort to quell the Indonesian National Revolution.
Congo crisis
See also: King Leopold II, Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Blood diamond. Following the Belgian Congo's independence as Congo-Leopoldville in 1960, Belgian interests supported the short-lived breakaway State of Katanga (1960–1963).[29]
East Timor
Indonesia established a Provisional Government of East Timor following its invasion of East Timor in December 1975.[30] [31] [32]
South Africa's Bantustans
During the 1970s and 1980s, four ethnic Bantustans - some of which were extremely fragmented - called "homelands" by the government of the time, were carved out of South Africa and given nominal sovereignty. Mostly Xhosa people resided in the Ciskei and Transkei, Tswana people in Bophuthatswana, and Venda people in the Venda.[33]
The principal purpose of these states was to remove South African citizenship from the Xhosa, Tswana, and Venda peoples, and so provide grounds for denying them their democratic rights. All four Bantustans were reincorporated into a democratic South Africa on 27 April 1994, under a new constitution.
The South African authorities established ten Bantustans in South West Africa (present-day Namibia), then illegally occupied by South Africa, in the late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with the Odendaal Commission. Three of them were granted self-rule. These Bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity-based governments in 1980.
Post-Cold War examples
Republic of Kuwait
The Republic of Kuwait was a short-lived pro-Iraqi state in the Persian Gulf that only existed three weeks before it was annexed by Iraq in 1990.
Republic of Serbian Krajina
The Republic of Serbian Krajina was a self-proclaimed territory ethnic cleansed by Serbian forces during the Croatian War (1991–95). It was completely dependent on the Serbian regime of Slobodan Milošević,[34] and was not recognised internationally.
Recent and current examples
United States
- (Interim Government and Coalition Provisional Authority) – Critics of the Iraqi Interim Government argued that it existed only at the pleasure of the United States and other coalition countries and considered it a U.S. puppet government.[35] This criticism was also extended to politicians active within the Interim Government, with the media suggesting that Ayad Allawi, was Washington's puppet.[36] [37] The CPA's economy was dominated by American influence. The CPA began to dismantle Iraq's centrally planned economy. Paul Bremer, chief executive of the CPA, planned to restructure Iraq's state owned economy with free market thinking. Bremer dropped the corporate tax rate from around 45% to a flat tax rate of 15% and allowed foreign corporations to repatriate all profits earned in Iraq. Opposition from senior Iraqi officials, together with the poor security situation, meant that Bremer's privatisation plan was not implemented during his tenure,[38] though his orders remained in place. CPA Order 39 laid out the framework for full privatisation in Iraq and permitted 100% foreign ownership of Iraqi assets and strengthened the positions of foreign businesses and investors. Critics like Naomi Klein argued that CPA Order 39 was designed to create as favourable an environment for foreign investors as possible, which would allow U.S. corporations to dominate Iraq's economy.[39] Also controversial was CPA Order 17 which granted all foreign contractors operating in Iraq immunity from "Iraqi legal process," effectively granting immunity from any kind of suit, civil or criminal, for actions the contractors engaged in within Iraq.[40] CPA Order 49 also provided significant tax cuts for corporations operating within Iraq by reducing the rate from a maximum of 40% to a maximum of just 15% on income. Furthermore, corporations who collaborated with the CPA were exempted from having to pay any tax.[41]
- – Many, including the Taliban who now comprise the country's current government,[42] considered the former Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to have been a U.S. puppet state.[43] The swiftness of the 2021 Taliban offensive after the withdrawal of U.S. troops that same year demonstrated its inability to maintain independence without them.
Armenia
- – A former self-declared independent state heavily populated by Armenians, it was internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan. Russian peacekeepers controlled the Lachin corridor that allowed traffic to reach Armenia, on which it was heavily dependent.[44] [45]
China
- – The de facto independent Wa State in Myanmar is considered a puppet state linked to China.[46] [47]
Russia
- is considered a puppet state that is dependent on Russia.[48] [49] The economy of Abkhazia is heavily integrated with Russia and uses the Russian ruble as its currency. About half of Abkhazia's state budget is financed with aid money from Russia.[50] Most Abkhazians have Russian passports.[51] Russia maintains a 3,500-strong force in Abkhazia with its headquarters in Gudauta, a former Soviet military base on the Black Sea coast[52] and the borders of Abkhazia are protected by Russian paratroopers.[53]
- has declared independence but its ability to maintain independence is solely based on Russian troops deployed on its territory. As South Ossetia is landlocked between Russia and Georgia, from which it seceded, it has relied on Russia for economic and logistical support, as all of its exports and imports and air and road traffic is only with Russia. Former President of South Ossetia Eduard Kokoity claimed he would like South Ossetia eventually to become a part of the Russian Federation through reunification with North Ossetia.[54]
- The (DPR) and the (LPR) were self-proclaimed republics in eastern Ukraine following the fallout from the Euromaidan protests and widely considered to be Russian puppet states.[55] [56] Russia annexed the DPR and LPR on September 30, 2022, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
- , a conservative holdover of pro-Soviet forces from the Transnistria War, is considered a puppet state sponsored by Russia.[57] [58] [59] [60]
Disputed examples
In Yemen
Iran
Saudi Arabia
United Arab Emirates
Turkish Republic of North Cyprus
- – According to the European Court of Human Rights, the Republic of Cyprus remains the sole legitimate government in Cyprus, and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus should be considered as a puppet state under Turkish control.[66] [67] Its isolation, Turkish military presence, and heavy dependence on Turkish support mean that Turkey has a high level of control over the country's decision-making processes. That has led to some experts stating that it runs as an effective puppet state of Turkey.[68] [69] [70] Other experts, however, have pointed out the independent nature of elections and appointments in Northern Cyprus and disputes between the Turkish Cypriot and Turkish governments and concluded that "puppet state" is not an accurate description for Northern Cyprus.[71] [72]
Belarus
Further reading
- Crawford, James (1979). The Creation of States in International Law.
Notes and References
- Compare: Book: Marek, Krystyna. Identity and Continuity of States in Public International Law. 1954. Library Droz. 9782600040440. 178 . [...] an allegedly independent, but 'actually' dependent, i.e. puppet State [...]..
- Book: McNeely, Connie L.. Constructing the Nation-state: International Organization and Prescriptive Action. registration. 13 September 2017. 1995. Greenwood Publishing Group. 978-0-313-29398-6. 61. The term 'puppet state' is used to describe nominal sovereigns under effective foreign control....
- Web site: The Strangling of Persia: A Story of European Diplomacy and Oriental Intrigue. Morgan Shuster. 221. No Ruz in: Near East Journal, 21 March 1912.
- https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/puppet%20government Puppet government
- Book: Raič, David . Statehood and the Law of Self-Determination . 13 September 2017 . 2002 . Kluwer Law International . 90-411-1890-X . 81 . In most cases, puppet States are created by the occupant during occupation of a State, for the purpose of circumventing the former's international responsibility regarding the violation of the rights of the occupied State..
- Book: Lemkin, Raphaël. Raphael Lemkin . Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress . 30 June 2019 . 2008 . The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. . 978-1-58477-901-8. 11 . 1944 . The creation of puppet states or of puppet governments does not give them any special status under international law in the occupied territory. Therefore the puppet governments and puppet states have no greater rights in the occupied territory than the occupant himself. Their actions should be considered as actions of the occupant and hence subject to the limitations of the Hague Regulations..
- Book: Shapiro, Stephen. Ultra Hush-hush. Annick Press. 2003. 1-55037-778-7. 38. Puppet state: a country whose government is being controlled by the government of another country, much as a puppeteer controls the strings on a marionette. registration.
- Web site: Harper. Douglas. puppet (n.). 1 June 2014. Online Etymology Dictionary.
- The Adaptation of the Napoleonic Political Structure in the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1813) . 40869047 . Stanley . John . Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne des Slavistes . 1989 . 31 . 2 . 128–145 . 10.1080/00085006.1989.11091911 .
- Şirin. İbrahim. İki Hükümet Bir Teşkilat: Garbî Trakya Hükümet-i Muvakkatesi'nden Cenub-î Garbî Kafkas Hükümeti Muvakkate- î Milliyesi'ne. Two Governments One Organisation: From the Provisional Government of Western Thrace to the Provisional Government of South-Western Caucasia. tr. History Studies . historystudies.net. 6. 2. February 2014. 1309-4688. 10.9737/historys1130. 125–142. See translated abstract on page 125.
- Web site: Casus Belli: Did Lenin Create Modern Ukraine? . Serhii Plokhii . 2022-02-27 . . 2022-07-08.
- Web site: USSR's first AEROWAGON - and the dark story behind it (PHOTOS + VIDEO) . Yekaterina Sinelschikova . 2021-08-03 . . 2022-07-07.
- Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 7–36.
- Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 49–57, 88–89.
- Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 44–47, 85–87.
- Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 63–89.
- Friedman, Francine (2004). Bosnia and Herzegovina: a polity on the brink. Routledge. p. 130. . "...nominally Croatia was ruled by the Italian Duke of Spoleto styled as King"
- ...managed to see the puppet Greek Prime Minister Ioannis Rallis through @ Sephardi Jewry: A History of the Judeo-Spanish Community, 14th–20th Centuries, p. 168
- Serbia also had a Nazi puppet regime headed by Milan Nedic @ The Balkanization of the West: The Confluence of Postmodernism and Postcommunism, p. 198
- Book: Taqoosh, Muhammad Sahil. تاريخ العراق (الحديث والمعاصر). Dar Al-Nafaes. 2015. 190–191. ar. Modern and contemporary history of Iraq.
- Book: Tanner, Väinö . The Winter War: Finland Against Russia, 1939–1940, Volume 312 . Palo Alto . Stanford University Press . 1956. 114 .
- Book: Trotter, William. A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939–1940 . Algonquin Books . 2013. 58, 61 .
- Encyclopedia: Hassan. Arfa. Hasan Arfa. Reza Shah Pahlavi: Shah of Iran: Policies as Shah. Encyclopædia Britannica online. Britannica.com. 25 November 2017.
- The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (Postcommunist States and Nations) David J. Smith from Front Matter
- Estonia: Identity and Independence: Translated into English (On the Boundary of Two Worlds: Identity, Freedom, and Moral Imagination in the Baltics) Jean-Jacques Subrenat, David Cousins, Alexander Harding, Richard C. Waterhouse. p. 246.
- Book: Mälksoo, Lauri. 2003. Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR. Leiden – Boston. Brill. 90-411-2177-3.
- Dae-Kyu. Yoon. 2003. The Constitution of North Korea: Its Changes and Implications. Fordham International Law Journal. 27. 4. 1289–1305. 10 August 2020.
- News: Park. Seong-Woo. 23 September 2009. 북 개정 헌법 '선군사상' 첫 명기. ko:Bug gaejeong heonbeob 'seongunsasang' cheos myeong-gi. First stipulation of the 'Seongun Thought' of the North Korean Constitution. Radio Free Asia. ko. 10 August 2020.
- Mockler, Antony (1987). The New Mercenaries: The History of the Hired Soldier from the Congo to the Seychelles. New York: Paragon House Publishers. pp. 37–55. .
- Web site: Declaration of Independence . Timor-Leste gov . 17 December 2021.
- News: Rourke . Alison . 29 August 2019 . East Timor: Indonesia's invasion and the long road to independence . The Guardian . 17 December 2021.
- News: Febrian . Ramdan . 28 November 2019 . A Piece Of The Story Of East Timor's Independence From Portugal Then Indonesia Was "annexed" . VOI . Indrawan . Aditya Fajar . 17 December 2021 . 17 December 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211217111643/https://voi.id/en/memori/473/a-piece-of-the-story-of-east-timors-independence-from-portugal-then-indonesia-was-annexed . dead .
- News: Trump's Plan for Palestine Looks a Lot Like Apartheid . . 27 February 2020.
- Book: Freedom on Fire. 9780674043480. 3 January 2020. Shattuck. John. 2009. Harvard University Press .
- Web site: Iraqis rise up against 16 years of 'made in the USA' corruption . 16 January 2024 . openDemocracy . en.
- News: Iraq's New S.O.B. . . July 2004.
- News: Dance of the Marionettes. Dowd. Maureen. Maureen Dowd. 26 September 2004. The New York Times. 16 January 2024.
- News: The Struggle for Iraq: Northern Region; Kurdish Region in Northern Iraq Will Get to Keep Special Status . The New York Times . Steven R. . Weisman . 2004-01-05.
- [The Shock Doctrine]
- Web site: iraqcoalition.org/~Status_of_Coalition_Rev_with_Annex_A.pdf . 16 January 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20040701202703/http://iraqcoalition.org/regulations/20040627_CPAORD_17_Status_of_Coalition__Rev__with_Annex_A.pdf . 2004-07-01 . dead.
- Web site: iraqcoalition.org/~Tax_Strategy_of_2004_with_Annex_and_Ex_Note.pdf . 16 January 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165636/http://www.iraqcoalition.org/regulations/20040220_CPAORD_49_Tax_Strategy_of_2004_with_Annex_and_Ex_Note.pdf . 2016-03-03 . dead.
- Web site: Afghanistan 2001–2021: U.S. Policy Lessons Learned . Crocker . Ryan . 17 November 2021 . 27 February 2024 . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20230502005208/https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/11/17/afghanistan-2001-2021-u.s.-policy-lessons-learned-pub-85814 . 2 May 2023.
- Hamid Karzai: Revenge of the Puppet . Dreyfuss . Bob . 28 April 2010 . 27 February 2024 . Rolling Stone . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20230605212201/https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/revenge-of-the-puppet-rolling-stones-2010-story-on-hamid-karzai-193925/ . 5 June 2023.
- Web site: The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and the Exercise of 'Self-Defense' to Recover Occupied Land. 10 November 2020. Just Security.
- Web site: Putin Finally Reveals His Solution to the Artsakh Conflict. Harut. Sassounian. 2 November 2020. The Armenian Weekly.
- News: Through reclusive Wa, a China's reach extends into Suu Kyi's Myanmar . Slodkowski . Antoni . Lee . Yimou . Reuters . 28 December 2016 . 20 February 2021.
- News: Why Myanmar's Wa always get what they want . Linter . Bertil . 18 September 2019 . 20 February 2021.
- Web site: Georgia and Russia: The occupation too many have forgotten. Luke. Coffey. thecommentator.com. 1 June 2012. 13 September 2017. 20 December 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131220181039/http://www.thecommentator.com/article/1272/georgia_and_russia_the_occupation_too_many_have_forgotten. dead.
- Book: Francis, Céline. Conflict Resolution and Status: The Case of Georgia and Abkhazia (1989–2008). 13 September 2017. 2011. VUBPRESS Brussels University Press. 978-90-5487-899-5. 92–97.
- News: No Clear Frontrunner as Abkhazia Goes to Poll . Nikolaus von Twickel . The Moscow Times . 26 August 2011.
- News: BBC News – Regions and territories: Abkhazia . BBC News . 22 November 2011 . . London . 19 January 2012.
- News: Russian Troops in Abkhazia to Get Air-Conditioned APCs. RIA Novosti. 19 April 2013.
- News: Abkhazia: The 'country' living in a Soviet time warp. Stephen Dowling. May 31, 2018. BBC.
- News: Russia insists it has no imperial ambitions for ex-Soviet neighbours. Daniel. McLaughlin. 12 September 2008. The Irish Times. 26 June 2021.
- Web site: Russian Analytical Digest No 214: The Armed Conflict in Eastern Ukraine. ETH Zurich. Nikolaus von Twickel . Gwendolyn Sasse . Mario Baumann.
- Book: The Legal Status of the Donetsk and Luhansk "Peoples' Republics". Tymur Korotkyi, Nataliia Hendel. 2018 . 145–170 . 10.1007/978-94-6265-222-4_7 . 978-94-6265-221-7 .
- News: Is Transnistria the ghost of Crimea's future?. The Christian Science Monitor. 5 March 2014. 25 October 2015. Robertson. Dylan C..
- Book: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-6265-141-8_2. Puppet States: A Growing Trend of Covert Occupation. 10.1007/978-94-6265-141-8_2. Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law Volume 18, 2015. 2016. Ivanel. Bogdan. 18. 43–65. 978-94-6265-140-1.
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- The European Unions position and practice with regard to unilateral and extraterritorial sanctions. Charlotte. Beaucillon. 17 August 2021. Research Handbook on Unilateral and Extraterritorial Sanctions. 110–129. 10.4337/9781839107856.00014 . 9781839107856 . 238717787 . www.elgaronline.com.
- News: 28 March 2015. Yemen president calls Houthis 'Iran's puppet'. en. Reuters. 16 January 2021.
- News: Juneau . Thomas . No, Yemen's Houthis actually aren't Iranian puppets . en . Washington Post . 16 May 2016 . 31 January 2021.
- News: 2 February 2018. ANALYSIS: Saudi Arabia plays puppet master as Yemen slowly breaks apart. Middle East Eye.
- Web site: UAE extends military reach in Yemen and Somalia. Noah. Browning. 11 May 2018. reuters.com.
- News: Yemen on the brink: how the UAE is profiting from the chaos of civil war . 31 December 2018 . The Guardian . 21 December 2018.
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- James, A. Sovereign statehood: The basis of international society. p. 142 https://books.google.com/books?id=CFoVAAAAIAAJ&dq=northern+cyprus+puppet+state&pg=PA142. Taylor and Francis, 1986, 288 pages. .
- Kurtulus, E. State sovereignty: concept, phenomenon and ramifications. p. 136 https://books.google.com/books?id=9hS8lfqxdgYC&dq=northern+cyprus+puppet+state&pg=PA136. Macmillan, 2005, 232 pages. .
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- Book: Dodd. Clement Henry. The political, social and economic development of Northern Cyprus. 1993. Eothen Press. 9780906719183. 377. In short, the electorate of Northern Cyprus votes freely for its political leaders and gives them substantial support. Nor is Northern Cyprus a Turkish puppet state. Mr Denktas and the Turkish-Cypriot case have a powerful following in Turkey....
- Web site: Kuzio . Taras . Taras Kuzio . 6 December 2022 . Russia must stop being an empire if it is wishes to prosper as a nation . 27 January 2023 . Atlantic Council.
- Web site: Dempsey . Judy . Judy Dempsey . 24 February 2022 . Judy Asks: Is Belarus's Sovereignty Over? . 27 January 2023 . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
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Yemen – The Houthi government is considered by some to be a puppet state which is supported by Iran.[61] This classification is disputed however.[62]
Belarus forms a Union State with Russia. It has been described as a Russian puppet state or de facto Russian since 2022, following the crushing of the 2020–2021 Belarusian protests with Russian assistance and the staging of the Russian invasion of Ukraine from Belarus.[73] [74] [75] [76] This description has been disputed by the Belarusian opposition and the Verkhovna Rada (the Ukrainian parliament), which have instead characterised Belarus as being under Russian military occupation.[77] [78]