Social stress explained

Social stress is stress that stems from one's relationships with others and from the social environment in general. Based on the appraisal theory of emotion, stress arises when a person evaluates a situation as personally relevant and perceives that they do not have the resources to cope or handle the specific situation.[1] [2]

The activation of social stress does not necessarily have to occur linked to a specific event, the mere idea that the event may occur could trigger it. This means that any element that takes a subject out of their personal and intimate environment could become a stressful experience. This situation makes them socially incompetent individuals.[3]

There are three main categories of social stressors.[4] Life events are defined as abrupt, severe life changes that require an individual to adapt quickly (ex. sexual assault, sudden injury).[5] Chronic strains are defined as persistent events which require an individual to make adaptations over an extended period of time (ex. divorce, unemployment). Daily hassles are defined as minor events that occur, which require adaptation throughout the day (ex. bad traffic, disagreements). When stress becomes chronic, one experiences emotional, behavioral, and physiological changes that can put one under greater risk for developing a mental disorder and physical illness.[6]

Humans are social beings by nature, as they typically have a fundamental need and desire to maintain positive social relationships.[7] Thus, they usually find maintaining positive social ties to be beneficial. Social relationships can offer nurturance, foster feelings of social inclusion, and lead to reproductive success.[8] Anything that disrupts or threatens to disrupt their relationships with others can result in social stress. This can include low social status in society or in particular groups, giving a speech, interviewing with potential employers, caring for a child or spouse with a chronic illness, meeting new people at a party, the threat of or actual death of a loved one, divorce, and discrimination.[9] [10] [11] [12] Social stress can arise from one's micro-environment (e.g., family ties) and macro-environment (e.g., hierarchical societal structure). Social stress is typically the most frequent type of stressor that people experience in their daily lives and affects people more intensely than other types of stressors.[13]

Definitions

Researchers define social stress and social stressors in various ways. Wadman, Durkin, and Conti-Ramsden (2011) defined social stress as "the feelings of discomfort or anxiety that individuals may experience in social situations, and the associated tendency to avoid potentially stressful social situations".[14] Ilfield (1977) defined social stressors as "circumstances of daily social roles that are generally considered problematic or undesirable".[15] Dormann and Zapf (2004) defined social stressors as "a class of characteristics, situations, episodes, or behaviors that are related to psychological or physical strain and that are somehow social in nature".[16]

Measurement

Social stress is typically measured through self-report questionnaires. In the laboratory, researchers can induce social stress through various methods and protocols.

Self-reports

There are several questionnaires used to assess environmental and psychosocial stress. Such self-report measures include the Test of Negative Social Exchange,[17] the Marital Adjustment Test,[18] the Risky Families Questionnaire,[19] the Holmes–Rahe Stress Inventory,[20] the Trier Inventory for the Assessment of Chronic Stress,[21] the Daily Stress Inventory,[22] the Job Content Questionnaire,[23] the Perceived Stress Scale,[24] and the Stress and Adversity Inventory.[25]

In addition to self-report questionnaires, researchers can employ structured interview assessments. The Life Events and Difficulties Schedule (LEDS) is one of the most popular instruments used in research.[26] [27] The purpose of this type of measure is to probe the participant to elaborate on their stressful life events, rather than answering singular questions. The UCLA Life Stress Interview (LSI), which is similar to the LEDS, includes questions about romantic partners, closest friendships, other friendships, and family relationships.[28]

Induction

In rodent models, social disruption and social defeat are two common social stress paradigms. In the social disruption paradigm, an aggressive rodent is introduced into a cage housing male rodents that have already naturally established a social hierarchy. The aggressive "intruder" disrupts the social hierarchy, causing the residents social stress.[29] In the social defeat paradigm, an aggressive "intruder" and another non-aggressive male rodent fight.[30]

In human research, the Trier Social Stress Task (TSST) is widely used to induce social stress in the laboratory. In the TSST, participants are told that they have to prepare and give a speech about why they would be a great candidate for their ideal job. The experimenter films the participant while they give the speech and informs the participant that a panel of judges will evaluate that speech. After the public speaking component, the experimenter administers a mathematics task that involves counting backwards by certain increments. If the participant makes a mistake, the experimenter prompts them to start again.[31] The threat of negative evaluation is the social stressor. Researchers can measure the stress response by comparing pre-stress salivary cortisol levels and post-stress salivary cortisol levels. Other common stress measures used in the TSST are self-report measures like the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and physiological measures like heart rate.[32]

In a laboratory conflict discussion, couples identify several specific areas of conflict in their relationship. The couples then pinpoint a couple topics to discuss later on in the experiment (ex. finances, child-rearing). Couples are told to discuss the conflict(s) for 10 minutes while being videotaped.[33]

Brouwer and Hogervorst (2014) designed the Sing-a-Song Stress Test (SSST) to induce stress in the laboratory setting. After viewing neutral images with subsequent 1-minute rest periods, the participant is instructed to sing a song after the next 1-minute rest period is complete. Researchers found that skin conductance and heart rate are significantly higher during the post-song message interval than the previous 1-minute intervals. The stress levels are comparable to that induced in the Trier Social Stress Task.[34] In 2020, a systematic review about the TSST provided several guidelines to standardize the use of the TSST across studies[35]

Statistical indicators of stress in large groups

A statistical indicator of stress, simultaneous increase of variance and correlations, was proposed for diagnosis of stress and successfully used in physiology and finance.[36] [37] Its applicability for early diagnosis of social stress in large groups was demonstrated by the analysis of crises. It was examined in the prolonged stress period preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the total correlation between the 19 major public fears in the Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and also in their statistical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years.[38]

Mental health

See also: Social determinants of mental health and Social medicine. Research has consistently demonstrated that social stress increases risk for developing negative mental health outcomes.[39] One prospective study asked over fifteen hundred Finnish employees whether they had "considerable difficulties with [their] coworkers/superiors/inferiors during the last 6 months, 5 years, earlier, or never".[40] Information on suicides, hospitalizations due to psychosis, suicidal behavior, alcohol intoxication, depressive symptoms, and medication for chronic psychiatric disorders was then gathered from the national registries of mortality and morbidity. Those who had experienced conflict in the workplace with coworkers or supervisors in the last five years were more likely to be diagnosed with a psychiatric condition.

Research on the LGBT population has suggested that people who identify as LGBT suffer more from mental health disorders, such as substance abuse and mood disorders, compared to those who identify as heterosexual.[41] Researchers deduce that the LGBT people's higher risk of mental health issues derives from their stressful social environments. Minority groups can face high levels of stigma, prejudice, and discrimination on a regular basis, therefore leading to the development of various mental health disorders.[41]

Depression

Risk for developing clinical depression significantly increases after experiencing social stress;[42] depressed individuals often experience interpersonal loss before becoming depressed.[43] [44] One study found that depressed individuals who had been rejected by others had developed depression about three times more quickly than those who had experienced stress not involving social rejection.[45] Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles the risk of developing depression.[46] [47] [48] [49] [50] In non-clinically depressed populations, people with friends and family who make too many demands, criticize, and create tension and conflict tend to have more depressive symptoms.[51] [52] [53] Conflict between spouses leads to more psychological distress and depressive symptoms, especially for wives.[54] In particular, unhappy married couples are 10–25 times more at risk for developing clinical depression.[55] [56] Similarly, social stress arising from discrimination is related to greater depressive symptoms. In one study, African-Americans and non-Hispanic whites reported on their daily experiences of discrimination and depressive symptoms. Regardless of race, those who perceived more discrimination had higher depressive symptoms.[57] Posselt and Lipson found, in 2016, that undergraduates had a 37% higher chance of developing depression if they perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive.[58]

Anxiety

The biological basis for anxiety disorders is rooted in the consistent activation of the stress response. Fear, which is the defining emotion of an anxiety disorder, occurs when someone perceives a situation (a stressor) as threatening.[59] This activates the stress response. If a person has difficulty regulating this stress response, it may activate inappropriately. Stress can therefore arise when a real stressor is not present or when something isn't actually threatening. This can lead to the development of an anxiety disorder (panic attacks, social anxiety, OCD, etc.).[60] [61] Social anxiety disorder is defined as the fear of being judged or evaluated by others, even if no such threat is actually present.[62]

Research shows a connection between social stress, such as traumatic life events and chronic strains, and the development of anxiety disorders.[63] A study that examined a subpopulation of adults, both young and middle-age, found that those who had diagnosed panic disorder in adulthood also experienced sexual abuse during childhood.[64] Children who experience social stressors, such as physical and psychological abuse, as well as parental loss, are also more at risk for developing anxiety disorders during adulthood than children who did not experience such stressors.[65]

In 2016, an analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that they had a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety if they perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive.[58]

Long-term effects

Social stress occurring early in life can have psychopathological effects that develop or persist in adulthood. One longitudinal study found that children were more likely to have a psychiatric disorder (e.g. anxiety, depressive, disruptive, personality, and substance use disorders) in late adolescence and early adulthood when their parents showed more maladaptive child-rearing behaviors (e.g., loud arguments between parents, verbal abuse, difficulty controlling anger toward the child, lack of parental support or availability, and harsh punishment). Child temperament and parental psychiatric disorders did not explain this association.[66] Other studies have documented the robust relationships between children's social stress within the family environment and depression, aggression, antisocial behavior, anxiety, suicide, and hostile, oppositional, and delinquent behavior.[67]

Relapse and recurrence

Social stress can also exacerbate current psychopathological conditions and compromise recovery. For instance, patients recovering from depression or bipolar disorder are two times more likely to relapse if there is familial tension.[68] People with eating disorders are also more likely to relapse if their family members make more critical comments, are more hostile, or are over-involved.[69] Similarly, outpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder show greater psychotic symptoms if the most influential person in their life is critical[70] and are more likely to relapse if their familial relationships are marked by tension.

In regard to substance abuse, cocaine-dependent individuals report greater cravings for cocaine following exposure to a social stressor.[71] Traumatic life events and social stressors can also trigger the exacerbation of the symptoms of mental health disorders. Socially phobic children who experience a stressful event can become even more avoidant and socially inactive.[72]

Physical health

See also: Social medicine, Social determinants of health and Social determinants of health in poverty.

Research has also found a robust relationship between various social stressors and aspects of physical health.[73]

Mortality

Social status, a macro-social stressor, is a robust predictor of death. In a study of over 1700 British civil servants, socioeconomic status (SES) was inversely related to mortality. Those with the lowest SES have worse health outcomes and greater mortality rates than those with the greatest SES.[74] Other studies have replicated this relationship between SES and mortality in a range of diseases, including infectious, digestive, and respiratory diseases.[75] [76] A study examining the link between SES and mortality in the elderly found that education level, household income, and occupational prestige were all related to lower mortality in men. In women, however, only household income was related to lower mortality.[77]

Similarly, social stressors in the micro-environment are also linked to increased mortality. A seminal longitudinal study of nearly 7,000 people found that socially isolated people had greater risk of dying from any cause.[78]

Social support, which is defined as "the comfort, assistance, and/or information one receives through formal or informal contacts with individuals or groups",[79] has been linked to physical health outcomes. Research shows the three aspects of social support, available attachments, perceived social support, and frequency of social interactions, can predict mortality thirty months after assessment.[80]

Morbidity

Social stress also makes people more sick. People who have fewer social contacts are at greater risk for developing illness, including cardiovascular disease.[81] The lower one's social status, the more likely he or she is to have a cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, neoplastic, pulmonary, renal, or other chronic diseases. These links are not explained by other, more traditional risk factors such as race, health behaviors, age, sex, or access to health care.[82]

In one laboratory study, researchers interviewed participants to determine whether they had been experiencing social conflicts with spouses, close family members and friends. They then exposed the participants to the common cold virus and found that participants with conflict-ridden relationships were two times more likely to develop a cold than those without such social stress.[83] Social support, especially in terms of support for socioeconomic stressors, is inversely related to physical morbidity.[84] A study that investigated social determinants of health in an urban slum in India found that social exclusion, stress, and lack of social support are significantly related to illnesses, such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, and diabetes.[85]

Students who are being bullied may show signs of depression, impaired academic achievement, impaired quality of sleep, and anxiety disorders.[86]

Long-term effects

Exposure to social stress in childhood can also have long-term effects, increasing risk for developing diseases later in life. In particular, adults who were maltreated (emotionally, physically, sexually abused or neglected) as children report more disease outcomes, such as stroke, heart attack, diabetes, and hypertension[87] or greater severity of those outcomes.[88] The Adverse Childhood Experiences study (ACE), which includes over seventeen thousand adults, also found that there was a 20% increase in likelihood for experiencing heart disease for each kind of chronic familial social stressor experienced in childhood, and this was not due to typical risk factors for heart disease such as demographics, smoking, exercise, adiposity, diabetes, or hypertension.[89]

Recovery and other disease

Social stress has also been tied to worse health outcomes among patients who already have a disease. Patients with end-stage renal disease faced a 46% increased risk for mortality when there was more relationship negativity with their spouse even when controlling for severity of disease and treatment.[90] Similarly, women who had experienced an acute coronary event were three times more likely to experience another coronary event if they experienced moderate to severe marital strain. This finding remained even after controlling for demographics, health behaviors, and disease status.[91]

With regard to HIV/AIDS, stress may affect the progression from the virus to the disease.[92] Research shows the HIV-positive males who have more negative life events, social stress, and lack of social support progress to a clinical AIDS diagnosis more quickly than HIV-positive males who do not have as high levels of social stress.[93] For HIV-positive females, who have also contracted the HSV virus, stress is a risk factor for genital herpes breakouts.[94]

Physiology

Social stress leads to a number of physiological changes that mediate its relationship to physical health. In the short term, the physiological changes outlined below are adaptive, as they enable the stressed organism to cope better. Dysregulation of these systems or repeated activation of them over the long-term can be detrimental to health.[95]

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) becomes activated in response to stress. Sympathetic arousal stimulates the medulla of the medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood stream, which facilitates the fight-or-flight response. Blood pressure, heart rate, and sweating increase, veins constrict to allow the heart to beat with more force, arteries leading to muscles dilate, and blood flow to parts of the body not essential for the fight or flight response decreases. If stress persists in the long run, then blood pressure remains elevated, leading to hypertension and atherosclerosis, both precursors to cardiovascular disease.[96]

A number of animal and human studies have confirmed that social stress increases risk for negative health outcomes by increasing SNS activity. Studies of rodents show that social stress causes hypertension and atherosclerosis.[97] Studies of non-human primates also show that social stress clogs arteries.[98] [99] Although humans cannot be randomized to receive social stress due to ethical concerns, studies have nevertheless shown that negative social interactions characterized by conflict lead to increases in blood pressure and heart rate.[100] Social stress stemming from perceived daily discrimination is also associated with elevated levels of blood pressure during the day and a lack of blood pressure dipping at night.[101] [102]

Hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical axis (HPA)

In response to stress, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), stimulating the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, including cortisol. Social stress can lead to adverse health outcomes by chronically activating the HPA axis or disrupting the HPA system. There are a number of studies that link social stress and indications of a disrupted HPA axis; for instance, monkey infants neglected by their mothers show prolonged cortisol responses following a challenging event.[103]

In humans, abused women exhibit a prolonged elevation in cortisol following a standardized psychosocial laboratory stressor compared to those without an abuse history.[104] Maltreated children show higher morning cortisol values than non-maltreated children.[105] Their HPA systems also fail to recover after a stressful social interaction with their caregiver.[106] Over time, low-SES children show progressively greater output of cortisol.[107] [108] Although these studies point to a disrupted HPA system accounting for the link between social stress and physical health, they did not include disease outcomes. Nevertheless, a dysfunctional HPA response to stress is thought to increase risk for developing or exacerbating diseases such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension.[109]

Inflammation

Inflammation is an immune response that is critical to fighting infections and repairing injured tissue. Although acute inflammation is adaptive, chronic inflammatory activity can contribute to adverse health outcomes, such as hypertension,[110] atherosclerosis,[111] coronary heart disease,[112] [113] depression,[114] diabetes,[115] and some cancers.[116] [117]

Research has elucidated a relationship between different social stressors and cytokines (the markers of inflammation). Chronic social stressors, such as caring for a spouse with dementia, lead to greater circulating levels of cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6),[118] whereas acute social stress tasks in the laboratory have been shown to elicit increases in proinflammatory cytokines.[119] Similarly, when faced with another type of social stress, namely social evaluative threat, participants showed increases in IL-6 and a soluble receptor for tumor necrosis factor-α.[120] [121] [122] Increases in inflammation may persist over time, as studies have shown that chronic relationship stress has been tied to greater IL-6 production 6 months later[123] and children reared in a stressful family environment marked by neglect and conflict tend to show elevated levels of C-reactive protein, a marker of IL-6, in adulthood.[124]

Interactions of physiological systems

There is extensive evidence that the above physiological systems affect one another's functioning. For instance, cortisol tends to have a suppressive effect on inflammatory processes, and proinflammatory cytokines can also activate the HPA system.[125] Sympathetic activity can also upregulate inflammatory activity.[126] [127] Given the relationships among these physiological systems, social stress may also influence health indirectly via affecting a particular physiological system that in turn affects a different physiological system.

Notes and References

  1. Smith, C. A., & Lazarus, R. S. (1990) Emotion and adaptation. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research (pp. 609-637). New York:Guilford.
  2. Haller . József . Stress and the social brain: behavioural effects and neurobiological mechanisms . Nature Reviews. Neuroscience . 2015 . 16 . 5 . 290–304 . 10.1038/nrn3918 . 25891510 . 38141791 .
  3. Spencer . Karen A. . 2017-08-19 . Developmental stress and social phenotypes: integrating neuroendocrine, behavioural and evolutionary perspectives . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 372 . 1727 . 20160242 . 10.1098/rstb.2016.0242 . 5498302 . 28673918.
  4. Levine, S., 2017. Social stress. New York: Routledge.
  5. Book: Handbook of Social Psychology. Springer Netherlands. 2013-01-01. 978-94-007-6771-3. 465–487. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. 10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0_16. Deborah. Carr . Debra . Umberson . The Social Psychology of Stress, Health, and Coping . Debra Umberson . John DeLamater. John. DeLamater. Amanda. Ward.
  6. Kreiger. Nancy. Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2001. 30. 4. 668–677. 10.1093/ije/30.4.668. 11511581. free.
  7. Slavich . George M . O'Donovan, Aoife . Epel, Elissa S . Kemeny, Margaret E . Black sheep get the blues: a psychobiological model of social rejection and depression . Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews . September 2010 . 35 . 1 . 39–45 . 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.01.003 . 20083138 . 2926175.
  8. Baumeister . R F . Leary, M R . The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation . Psychological Bulletin . May 1995 . 117 . 3 . 497–529 . 7777651 . 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497. 13559932 .
  9. Kessler, R. C. (1979). Stress, social status, and psychological distress.Journal of Health and Social behavior, 259-272.
  10. Taylor, J., & Turner, R. J. (2002). Perceived discrimination, social stress, and depression in the transition to adulthood: Racial contrasts. Social Psychology Quarterly, 213-225.
  11. Booth, A., & Amato, P. (1991). Divorce and psychological stress. Journal of health and social behavior, 396-407.
  12. Lazarus, R. S., & Launier, R. (1978). Stress-related transactions between person and environment. In Perspectives in interactional psychology (pp. 287-327). Springer US.
  13. Almeida . David M. . Resilience and Vulnerability to Daily Stressors Assessed via Diary Methods . Current Directions in Psychological Science . April 2005 . 14 . 2 . 64–68 . 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00336.x .
  14. Wadman . Ruth . Durkin . Kevin . Conti-Ramsden . Gina . Social stress in young people with specific language impairment . Journal of Adolescence . June 2011 . 34 . 3 . 421–431 . 10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.06.010 . 20650511 .
  15. Current social stressors and symptoms of depression . American Journal of Psychiatry . February 1977 . 134 . 2 . 161–166 . 10.1176/ajp.134.2.161 . 835737 . Ilfeld Jr . F. W. .
  16. Customer-Related Social Stressors and Burnout. Dormann. Christian. January 2004. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 9. 10.1037/1076-8998.9.1.61. 14700458. Zapf. Dieter. 1. 61–82.
  17. Ruehlman . Linda S. . Karoly, Paul . With a little flak from my friends: Development and preliminary validation of the Test of Negative Social Exchange (TENSE) . Psychological Assessment . 1991 . 3 . 1 . 97–104 . 10.1037/1040-3590.3.1.97.
  18. Locke . Harvey J. . Wallace, Karl M. . Short Marital-Adjustment and Prediction Tests: Their Reliability and Validity . Marriage and Family Living. August 1959 . 21 . 3 . 251–255 . 10.2307/348022 . 348022.
  19. Taylor . Shelley E . Lerner, Jennifer S . Sage, Rebecca M . Lehman, Barbara J . Seeman, Teresa E . Early environment, emotions, responses to stress, and health . Journal of Personality . December 2004 . 72 . 6 . 1365–1393 . 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00300.x . 15509286 . 10.1.1.324.5195 .
  20. The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 213–218. 11. 2. 10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4. Thomas H.. Holmes. Richard H.. Rahe. 6059863. August 1967.
  21. Schulz . Peter . Schlotz . Wolff . Trierer Inventar zur Erfassung von chronischem Streß (TICS): Skalenkonstruktion, teststatistische Überprüfung und Validierung der Skala Arbeitsüberlastung . Diagnostica . January 1999 . 45 . 1 . 8–19 . 10.1026//0012-1924.45.1.8 .
  22. Brantley . Phillip J. . Waggoner . Craig D. . Jones . Glenn N. . Rappaport . Neil B. . A daily stress inventory: Development, reliability, and validity . Journal of Behavioral Medicine . February 1987 . 10 . 1 . 61–73 . 10.1007/BF00845128 . 3586002 . 5876098 .
  23. The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics.. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 322–355. 3. 4. 10.1037/1076-8998.3.4.322. Robert. Karasek. Chantal. Brisson. Norito. Kawakami. Irene. Houtman. Paulien. Bongers. Benjamin. Amick. 1998. 9805280. 17610678.
  24. A Global Measure of Perceived Stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1983-12-01. 385–396. 24. 4. 10.2307/2136404. Sheldon. Cohen. Tom. Kamarck. Robin. Mermelstein. 2136404. 6668417. 21357701 .
  25. Slavich, G. M., & Epel, E. S. (2010). The Stress and Adversity Inventory (STRAIN): An automated system for assessing cumulative stress exposure. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles.
  26. Book: Cohen . Sheldon . Kessler . Ronald C. . Gordon . Lynn Underwood . Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists . 1997 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-028388-9 .
  27. Book: Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. Brown. George William. Tavistock. 1978. 978-0-422-76310-3. London. Harris. Tirril.
  28. Web site: Hammen Lab at UCLA. hammenlab.psych.ucla.edu. 2015-12-10.
  29. Stark . Jennifer L. . Avitsur . Ronit . Padgett . David A. . Campbell . Kim A. . Beck . F. Michael . Sheridan . John F. . Social stress induces glucocorticoid resistance in macrophages . American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology . June 2001 . 280 . 6 . R1799–R1805 . 10.1152/ajpregu.2001.280.6.R1799 . 11353685 . 28128292 .
  30. Berton . Olivier . McClung . Colleen A. . DiLeone . Ralph J. . Krishnan . Vaishnav . Renthal . William . Russo . Scott J. . Graham . Danielle . Tsankova . Nadia M. . Bolanos . Carlos A. . Rios . Maribel . Monteggia . Lisa M. . Self . David W. . Nestler . Eric J. . Essential Role of BDNF in the Mesolimbic Dopamine Pathway in Social Defeat Stress . Science . 10 February 2006 . 311 . 5762 . 864–868 . 10.1126/science.1120972 . 16469931 . 2006Sci...311..864B . 32965598 .
  31. Kirschbaum . C . Pirke, K M . Hellhammer, D H . The 'Trier Social Stress Test'—a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting . Neuropsychobiology . 1993 . 28 . 1–2 . 76–81 . 8255414 . 10.1159/000119004.
  32. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
  33. Ditzen . B. . Schaer . M. . Gabriel . B. . Bodenmann . G. . Ehlert . U. . Heinrichs . M. . 2009 . Intranasal oxytocin increases positive communication and reduces cortisol levels during couple conflict . Biological Psychiatry . 65 . 9. 728–731 . 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.011 . 19027101. 22547391 .
  34. Brouwer . Anne-Marie . Hogervorst . Maarten A. . A new paradigm to induce mental stress: the Sing-a-Song Stress Test (SSST) . Frontiers in Neuroscience . 29 July 2014 . 8 . 224 . 10.3389/fnins.2014.00224 . 25120425 . 4114180 . free .
  35. Narvaez Linares. N.F.. Charron. V.. Ouimet. A.J.. Labelle. P.R.. Plamondon. H.. 2020-06-15. A systematic review of the Trier Social Stress Test methodology: Issues in promoting study comparison and replicable research. Neurobiology of Stress. en. 13. 100235. 10.1016/j.ynstr.2020.100235. 33344691. 7739033. free.
  36. Gorban . Alexander N. . Smirnova . Elena V. . Tyukina . Tatiana A. . Correlations, risk and crisis: From physiology to finance . Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications . August 2010 . 389 . 16 . 3193–3217 . 10.1016/j.physa.2010.03.035 . 0905.0129 . 2010PhyA..389.3193G . 276956 .
  37. Mantegna, R.N.; Stanley, H.E. "Introduction to econophysics: correlations and complexity in finance." Cambridge university press; 1999 Nov 13.
  38. Rybnikov . Sviatoslav R. . Rybnikova . Natalya A. . Portnov . Boris A. . Public Fears in Ukrainian Society: Are Crises Predictable? . Psychology and Developing Societies . March 2017 . 29 . 1 . 98–123 . 10.1177/0971333616689398 . 151344338 .
  39. Levine, S., 2017. Social stress. New York: Routledge
  40. Romanov . K . Appelberg, K . Honkasalo, M L . Koskenvuo, M . Recent interpersonal conflict at work and psychiatric morbidity: a prospective study of 15,530 employees aged 24-64 . Journal of Psychosomatic Research . February 1996 . 40 . 2 . 169–176 . 8778399 . 10.1016/0022-3999(95)00577-3.
  41. Meyer . Ilan H. . Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. . Psychological Bulletin . September 2003 . 129 . 5 . 674–697 . 10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674 . 12956539 . 2072932 .
  42. Monroe . S. M. . Slavich . G. M. . Georgiades . K. . 2009 . The social environment and life stress in depression . Handbook of Depression . 2 . 1. 340–60 .
  43. Paykel . E. S. . Life events and affective disorders . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica . 2003 . 108 . 418 . 61–66 . 10.1034/j.1600-0447.108.s418.13.x. 12956817 . 19224742 .
  44. Mazure . Carolyn M. . Life Stressors as Risk Factors in Depression . Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice . 1998 . 5 . 3 . 291–313 . 10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00151.x.
  45. Slavich . GEORGE M. . Thornton, Tiffany . Torres, Leandro D. . Monroe, Scott M. . Gotlib, Ian H. . Targeted Rejection Predicts Hastened Onset of Major Depression . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology . 1 February 2009 . 28 . 2 . 223–243 . 10.1521/jscp.2009.28.2.223 . 20357895 . 2847269.
  46. Web site: Pew Research Center . 2010 . The Impact of Long-term Unemployment Lost Income, Lost Friends—and Loss of Self-respect .
  47. Web site: Press Statement Irish Health Survey 2019 - Main Results - CSO - Central Statistics Office . 2023-11-06 . www.cso.ie . en.
  48. Web site: Leopold . Les . 2023-01-17 . Op-Ed: Being laid off is devastating. Yet society never measures that toll . 2023-11-06 . Los Angeles Times . en-US.
  49. McGee . Robin E. . Thompson . Nancy J. . Unemployment and Depression Among Emerging Adults in 12 States, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2010 . Preventing Chronic Disease . 19 March 2015 . 12 . E38 . 10.5888/pcd12.140451 . 25789499 . 4372159 . free .
  50. Farré . Lídia . Fasani . Francesco . Mueller . Hannes . Feeling useless: the effect of unemployment on mental health in the Great Recession . IZA Journal of Labor Economics . December 2018 . 7 . 1 . 10.1186/s40172-018-0068-5 . free . 10261/170378 . free .
  51. Schuster . T L . Kessler, R C . Aseltine, R H Jr . Supportive interactions, negative interactions, and depressed mood . American Journal of Community Psychology . June 1990 . 18 . 3 . 423–438 . 2264558 . 10.1007/bf00938116. 2027.42/117085 . 31756425 . free .
  52. Finch . J F . Okun, M A . Pool, G J . Ruehlman, L S . A comparison of the influence of conflictual and supportive social interactions on psychological distress . Journal of Personality . August 1999 . 67 . 4 . 581–621 . 10444852 . 10.1111/1467-6494.00066.
  53. Pinquart . Martin . Sörensen, Silvia . Associations of stressors and uplifts of caregiving with caregiver burden and depressive mood: a meta-analysis . The Journals of Gerontology: Series B . March 2003 . 58 . 2 . 112–128 . 12646594 . 10.1093/geronb/58.2.p112.
  54. Horwitz . A V . McLaughlin, J . White, H R . How the negative and positive aspects of partner relationships affect the mental health of young married people . Journal of Health and Social Behavior . June 1998 . 39 . 2 . 124–136 . 9642903 . 2676395 . 10.2307/2676395.
  55. Weissman . M M . Advances in psychiatric epidemiology: rates and risks for major depression. . American Journal of Public Health . April 1987 . 77 . 4 . 445–451 . 3826462 . 1646931 . 10.2105/ajph.77.4.445.
  56. Daniel . K. . Christian, Jennifer L. . Mendell, Nancy R. . A closer look at the link between marital discord and depressive symptomatology . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology . 1994 . 13 . 1 . 33–41 . 10.1521/jscp.1994.13.1.33.
  57. Taylor . John . Jay, R. . Perceived discrimination, social stress and depression in the transition to adulthood: Racial contrasts . Social Psychology Quarterly . 2002 . 65 . 3 . 213–225 . 10.2307/3090120. 3090120 .
  58. Posselt . Julie R. . Lipson . Sarah Ketchen . Competition, Anxiety, and Depression in the College Classroom: Variations by Student Identity and Field of Study . Journal of College Student Development . 2016 . 57 . 8 . 973–989 . . 10.1353/csd.2016.0094 . 151752884 .
  59. Shin . L. M. . Liberzon . I. . 2010 . The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders . Neuropsychopharmacology . 35 . 1. 169–191 . 10.1038/npp.2009.83. 19625997 . 3055419 .
  60. Book: Bear . Mark F. . Connors . Barry W. . Paradiso . Michael A. . Neuroscience . 2007 . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . 978-0-7817-6003-4 .
  61. Web site: What Are Anxiety Disorders?. www.psychiatry.org. 2020-04-30.
  62. Web site: Social Anxiety Disorder Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA. www.adaa.org. 2015-12-06.
  63. Beehr . T. A. . McGrath . J. E. . 1992 . Social support, occupational stress and anxiety . Anxiety, Stress, & Coping . 5 . 1. 7–19 . 10.1080/10615809208250484.
  64. Stein . M.B. . Walker . J.R. . Anderson . G. . Hazen . Al . Ross . C.A. . Eldridge . G. . etal . 1996 . Childhood physical and sexual abuse in patients with anxiety disorders and in a community sample . Am J Psychiatry . 153 . 2. 275–277 . 10.1176/ajp.153.2.275 . 8561213.
  65. Prigerson . H. G. . Shear . M. K. . Bierhals . A. J. . Zonarich . D. L. . Reynolds . C. F. . 1996 . Childhood adversity, attachment and personality styles as predictors of anxiety among elderly caregivers . Anxiety . 2 . 5. 234–241 . 10.1002/(sici)1522-7154(1996)2:5<234::aid-anxi5>3.3.co;2-9. 9160628 .
  66. Johnson . J G . Cohen, P . Kasen, S . Smailes, E . Brook, J S . Association of maladaptive parental behavior with psychiatric disorder among parents and their offspring . Archives of General Psychiatry . May 2001 . 58 . 5 . 453–460 . 11343524 . 10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.453. free .
  67. Repetti . Rena L. . Taylor . Shelley E. . Seeman . Teresa E. . Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. . Psychological Bulletin . 2002 . 128 . 2 . 330–366 . 10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.230 . 11931522 . 10.1.1.327.165 .
  68. Miklowitz . D. J. . Goldstein . M. J. . Nuechterlein . K. H. . Snyder . K. S. . Mintz . J. . 1988 . Family factors and the course of bipolar affective disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry . 45 . 3. 225–231 . 10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800270033004. 3341878 .
  69. Butzlaff . R L . Hooley, J M . Expressed emotion and psychiatric relapse: a meta-analysis . Archives of General Psychiatry . June 1998 . 55 . 6 . 547–552 . 9633674 . 10.1001/archpsyc.55.6.547. free .
  70. Docherty . Nancy M. . St-Hilaire, Annie . Aakre, Jennifer M. . Seghers, James P. . McCleery, Amanda . Divilbiss, Marielle . Anxiety Interacts With Expressed Emotion Criticism in the Prediction of Psychotic Symptom Exacerbation . Schizophrenia Bulletin . 1 May 2011 . 37 . 3 . 611–618 . 10.1093/schbul/sbp123 . 19892819 . 3080683.
  71. Back . Sudie E . Hartwell, Karen . DeSantis, Stacia M . Saladin, Michael . McRae-Clark, Aimee L . Price, Kimber L . Moran-Santa Maria, Megan M . Baker, Nathaniel L . Spratt, Eve . Kreek, Mary Jeanne . Brady, Kathleen T . Reactivity to laboratory stress provocation predicts relapse to cocaine . Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 1 January 2010 . 106 . 1 . 21–27 . 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.07.016 . 19726138 . 2815094.
  72. A developmental psychopathology model of childhood traumatic stress and intersection with anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry. 1999-12-01. 1542–1554. 46. 11. 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00262-0. 10599482. Robert S. Pynoos. Alan M. Steinberg. John C. Piacentini. 10.1.1.456.8902. 205870651.
  73. Miller . G. . Chen . E. . Cole . S. W. . 2009 . Health Psychology . Annual Review of Psychology . 60 . 501–524 . 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163551 . 19035829. free .
  74. Marmot . M G . Rose, G . Shipley, M . Hamilton, P J . Employment grade and coronary heart disease in British civil servants . Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health . December 1978 . 32 . 4 . 244–249 . 744814 . 1060958 . 10.1136/jech.32.4.244.
  75. Adler . Nancy E. . Boyce . Thomas . Chesney . Margaret A. . Cohen . Sheldon . Folkman . Susan . Kahn . Robert L. . Syme . S. Leonard . Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. . American Psychologist . 1994 . 49 . 1 . 15–24 . 10.1037/0003-066x.49.1.15 . 8122813 . 10.1.1.336.6204 . 14676607 .
  76. Kaplan . G A . Keil . J E . Socioeconomic factors and cardiovascular disease: a review of the literature. . Circulation . October 1993 . 88 . 4 . 1973–1998 . 10.1161/01.cir.88.4.1973 . 8403348 . free . 2027.42/55356 . free .
  77. Bassuk . S. S. . Socioeconomic Status and Mortality among the Elderly: Findings from Four US Communities . American Journal of Epidemiology . 15 March 2002 . 155 . 6 . 520–533 . 10.1093/aje/155.6.520 . 11882526 . free.
  78. Berkman . L F . Syme, S L . Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: a nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents . American Journal of Epidemiology . February 1979 . 109 . 2 . 186–204 . 425958. 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112674 .
  79. Wallston . B. S. . Alagna . S. W. . DeVellis . B. M. . DeVellis . R. F. . 1983 . Social support and physical health . Health Psychology . 2 . 4. 367–391 . 10.1037/0278-6133.2.4.367.
  80. Blazer . Dan G. . Social Support and Mortality in an Elderly Community Population . American Journal of Epidemiology . May 1982 . 115 . 5 . 684–694 . 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113351 . 7081200 .
  81. Seeman . T E . Health promoting effects of friends and family on health outcomes in older adults . American Journal of Health Promotion . August 2000 . 14 . 6 . 362–370 . 11067571 . 10.4278/0890-1171-14.6.362. 3322666 .
  82. Pincus . T . Callahan, L F . Burkhauser, R V . Most chronic diseases are reported more frequently by individuals with fewer than 12 years of formal education in the age 18-64 United States population . Journal of Chronic Diseases . 1987 . 40 . 9 . 865–874 . 3597688 . 10.1016/0021-9681(87)90186-x.
  83. Cohen . Sheldon . Frank . Ellen . Doyle . William J. . Skoner . David P. . Rabin . Bruce S. . Gwaltney . Jack M. . Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults. . Health Psychology . 1998 . 17 . 3 . 214–223 . 10.1037/0278-6133.17.3.214 . 9619470 .
  84. Social Stress: Theory and Research. Annual Review of Sociology. 1992-01-01. 15–38. 18. Carol S.. Aneshensel. 10.1146/annurev.soc.18.1.15. 2083444.
  85. Pawar . A. B. . Mohan . P. V. T. K. . Bansal . R. K. . 2008 . Social determinants, suboptimal health behavior, and morbidity in urban slum population: an Indian perspective . Journal of Urban Health . 85 . 4. 607–618 . 10.1007/s11524-008-9261-3. 18404392 . 2443249 .
  86. Web site: Center for Disease Control and Prevention . 2019 . Preventing Bullying .
  87. Rich-Edwards . Janet W . Spiegelman, Donna . Lividoti Hibert, Eileen N . Jun, Hee-Jin . Todd, Tamarra James . Kawachi, Ichiro . Wright, Rosalind J . Abuse in childhood and adolescence as a predictor of type 2 diabetes in adult women . American Journal of Preventive Medicine . December 2010 . 39 . 6 . 529–536 . 10.1016/j.amepre.2010.09.007 . 21084073 . 3003936.
  88. Wegman . Holly L . Stetler, Cinnamon . A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood . Psychosomatic Medicine . October 2009 . 71 . 8 . 805–812 . 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181bb2b46 . 19779142 . 25054003 .
  89. Dong . Maxia . Giles, Wayne H . Felitti, Vincent J . Dube, Shanta R . Williams, Janice E . Chapman, Daniel P . Anda, Robert F . Insights Into Causal Pathways for Ischemic Heart Disease: Adverse Childhood Experiences Study . Circulation . 28 September 2004 . 110 . 13 . 1761–1766 . 10.1161/01.CIR.0000143074.54995.7F . 15381652 . free .
  90. Kimmel . P L . Peterson, R A . Weihs, K L . Shidler, N . Simmens, S J . Alleyne, S . Cruz, I . Yanovski, J A . Veis, J H . Phillips, T M . Dyadic relationship conflict, gender, and mortality in urban hemodialysis patients . Journal of the American Society of Nephrology . August 2000 . 11 . 8 . 1518–1525 . 10.1681/ASN.V1181518 . 10906166 . free .
  91. Orth-Gomér . Kristina . Wamala . Sarah P. . Horsten . Myriam . Schenck-Gustafsson . Karin . Schneiderman . Neil . Mittleman . Murray A. . Marital Stress Worsens Prognosis in Women With Coronary Heart Disease: The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study . JAMA . 20 December 2000 . 284 . 23 . 3008–3014 . 10.1001/jama.284.23.3008 . 11122587 . free .
  92. Cohen . Sheldon . Janicki-Deverts . Denise . Miller . Gregory E. . Psychological Stress and Disease . JAMA . 10 October 2007 . 298 . 14 . 1685–1687 . 10.1001/jama.298.14.1685 . 17925521 . 12159960 .
  93. Leserman . J. . Petitto . J. M. . Gu . H. . Gaynes . B. N. . Barroso . J. . Golden . R. N. . Perkins . D. O. . Folds . J. D. . Evans . D. L. . Progression to AIDS, a clinical AIDS condition and mortality: psychosocial and physiological predictors . Psychological Medicine . August 2002 . 32 . 6 . 1059–1073 . 10.1017/S0033291702005949 . 12214787 . 25118892 .
  94. Pereira . D. B. . Antoni . M. H. . Danielson . A. . Simon . T. . Efantis-Potter . J. . Carver . C. S. . O'Sullivan . M. J. . 2003 . Stress as a predictor of symptomatic genital herpes virus recurrence in women with human immunodeficiency virus . Journal of Psychosomatic Research . 54 . 3. 237–244 . 10.1016/s0022-3999(02)00494-4. 12614833 .
  95. McEwen . B. S. . Stress and the individual. Mechanisms leading to disease . Archives of Internal Medicine . 27 September 1993 . 153 . 18 . 2093–2101 . 10.1001/archinte.153.18.2093 . 8379800 .
  96. Sapolsky, R. M. (1994). Why zebras don't get ulcers: A guide to stress, stress related diseases, and coping. New York: W.H. Freeman.
  97. Sgoifo . A . Koolhaas, J . De Boer, S . Musso, E . Stilli, D . Buwalda, B . Meerlo, P . Social stress, autonomic neural activation, and cardiac activity in rats . Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews . November 1999 . 23 . 7 . 915–923 . 10580306 . 10.1016/s0149-7634(99)00025-1. 10.1.1.473.9291 . 31782836 .
  98. Manuck . Stephen B. . Marsland . Anna L. . Kaplan . Jay R. . Williams . J. Koudy . The Pathogenicity of Behavior and Its Neuroendocrine Mediation: An Example From Coronary Artery Disease . Psychosomatic Medicine . 1995 . 57 . 3 . 275–283 . 10.1097/00006842-199505000-00009 . 7652128 .
  99. Shively . Carol A. . Register . Thomas C. . Clarkson . Thomas B. . Social stress, visceral obesity, and coronary artery atherosclerosis: product of a primate adaptation . American Journal of Primatology . September 2009 . 71 . 9 . 742–751 . 10.1002/ajp.20706 . 19452515 . 3970187 .
  100. Gerin . W . Pieper . C . Levy . R . Pickering . T G . Social support in social interaction: a moderator of cardiovascular reactivity . Psychosomatic Medicine . May 1992 . 54 . 3 . 324–336 . 10.1097/00006842-199205000-00008 . 1620808 . 10.1.1.514.1178 . 20708106 .
  101. Tomfohr . Lianne . Cooper, Denise C . Mills, Paul J . Nelesen, Richard A . Dimsdale, Joel E . Everyday discrimination and nocturnal blood pressure dipping in black and white americans . Psychosomatic Medicine . April 2010 . 72 . 3 . 266–272 . 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181d0d8b2 . 20124424 . 2894630.
  102. Smart Richman . Laura . Pek, Jolynn . Pascoe, Elizabeth . Bauer, Daniel J . The effects of perceived discrimination on ambulatory blood pressure and affective responses to interpersonal stress modeled over 24 hours . Health Psychology. July 2010 . 29 . 4 . 403–411 . 10.1037/a0019045 . 20658828. 10161/11806 . free .
  103. Dettling . A . Pryce, C R . Martin, R D . Döbeli, M . Physiological Responses to parental separation and a strange situation are related to parental care received in juvenile Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii) . Developmental Psychobiology . July 1998 . 33 . 1 . 21–31 . 9664169 . 10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(199807)33:1<21::aid-dev3>3.0.co;2-u.
  104. Heim . C . Newport, D J . Heit, S . Graham, Y P . Wilcox, M . Bonsall, R . Miller, A H . Nemeroff, C B . Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood . Journal of the American Medical Association . 2 August 2000 . 284 . 5 . 592–597 . 10918705 . 10.1001/jama.284.5.592. free .
  105. Cicchetti . D . Rogosch, F A . The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning . Development and Psychopathology . 2001 . 13 . 4 . 783–804 . 11771908. 10.1017/S0954579401004035 . 35564970 .
  106. Wismer Fries . Alison B. . Shirtcliff, Elizabeth A. . Pollak, Seth D. . Neuroendocrine dysregulation following early social deprivation in children . Developmental Psychobiology . September 2008 . 50 . 6 . 588–599 . 10.1002/dev.20319 . 18683181 . 2673795.
  107. Chen . Edith . Cohen, Sheldon . Miller, Gregory E. . How Low Socioeconomic Status Affects 2-Year Hormonal Trajectories in Children . Psychological Science . 1 January 2010 . 21 . 1 . 31–37 . 10.1177/0956797609355566 . 20424019. 9015258 .
  108. Evans . Gary W . Kim, Pilyoung . Childhood poverty and health: cumulative risk exposure and stress dysregulation . Psychological Science . November 2007 . 18 . 11 . 953–957 . 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02008.x . 17958708. 11431880 .
  109. McEwen . B S . Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators . The New England Journal of Medicine . 15 January 1998 . 338 . 3 . 171–179 . 10.1056/NEJM199801153380307 . 9428819. Underhill . Lisa H. . McEwen . Bruce S. . 10.1.1.357.2785 .
  110. Niskanen . Leo . Laaksonen, David E . Nyyssönen, Kristiina . Punnonen, Kari . Valkonen, Veli-Pekka . Fuentes, Ricardo . Tuomainen, Tomi-Pekka . Salonen, Riitta . Salonen, Jukka T . Inflammation, abdominal obesity, and smoking as predictors of hypertension . Hypertension . December 2004 . 44 . 6 . 859–865 . 10.1161/01.HYP.0000146691.51307.84 . 15492131 . 20640058 .
  111. Amar . Jacques . Fauvel, Josette . Drouet, Ludovic . Ruidavets, Jean Bernard . Perret, Bertrand . Chamontin, Bernard . Boccalon, Henri . Ferrieres, Jean . Interleukin 6 is associated with subclinical atherosclerosis: a link with soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 . Journal of Hypertension . June 2006 . 24 . 6 . 1083–1088 . 10.1097/01.hjh.0000226198.44181.0c . 16685208. 21824472 .
  112. Cesari . Matteo . Penninx, Brenda W J H . Newman, Anne B . Kritchevsky, Stephen B . Nicklas, Barbara J . Sutton-Tyrrell, Kim . Rubin, Susan M . Ding, Jingzhong . Simonsick, Eleanor M . Harris, Tamara B . Pahor, Marco . Inflammatory markers and onset of cardiovascular events: results from the Health ABC study . Circulation . 11 November 2003 . 108 . 19 . 2317–2322 . 10.1161/01.CIR.0000097109.90783.FC . 14568895 . free . 2434/550370 . free .
  113. Ridker . P M . Rifai, N . Stampfer, M J . Hennekens, C H . Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men . Circulation . 18 April 2000 . 101 . 15 . 1767–1772 . 10769275 . 10.1161/01.cir.101.15.1767. free .
  114. Raison . Charles L . Capuron, Lucile . Miller, Andrew H . Cytokines sing the blues: inflammation and the pathogenesis of depression . Trends in Immunology . January 2006 . 27 . 1 . 24–31 . 10.1016/j.it.2005.11.006 . 16316783 . 3392963.
  115. Wellen . Kathryn E . Hotamisligil, Gökhan S . Inflammation, stress, and diabetes . The Journal of Clinical Investigation . May 2005 . 115 . 5 . 1111–1119 . 10.1172/JCI25102 . 15864338 . 1087185.
  116. Coussens . Lisa M . Werb, Zena . Inflammation and cancer . Nature . 19 December 2002 . 420 . 6917 . 860–867 . 10.1038/nature01322 . 12490959 . 2803035. 2002Natur.420..860C .
  117. Rakoff-Nahoum . Seth . Why Cancer and Inflammation? . The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine . December 2006 . 79 . 3–4 . 123–130 . 17940622 . 1994795.
  118. Kiecolt-Glaser . Janice K . Preacher, Kristopher J . MacCallum, Robert C . Atkinson, Cathie . Malarkey, William B . Glaser, Ronald . Chronic stress and age-related increases in the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 22 July 2003 . 100 . 15 . 9090–9095 . 10.1073/pnas.1531903100 . 12840146 . 166443. 2003PNAS..100.9090K . free .
  119. Steptoe . Andrew . Hamer, Mark . Chida, Yoichi . The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating inflammatory factors in humans: a review and meta-analysis . Brain, Behavior, and Immunity . October 2007 . 21 . 7 . 901–912 . 10.1016/j.bbi.2007.03.011 . 17475444. 11870427 .
  120. Slavich . George M. . Way, Baldwin M. . Eisenberger, Naomi I. . Taylor, Shelley E. . Neural sensitivity to social rejection is associated with inflammatory responses to social stress . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 17 August 2010 . 107 . 33 . 14817–14822 . 10.1073/pnas.1009164107 . 20679216 . 2930449. 2010PNAS..10714817S . free .
  121. Dickerson . Sally S . Gable, Shelly L . Irwin, Michael R . Aziz, Najib . Kemeny, Margaret E . Social-evaluative threat and proinflammatory cytokine regulation: an experimental laboratory investigation . Psychological Science . October 2009 . 20 . 10 . 1237–1244 . 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02437.x . 19754527 . 2761517.
  122. Miller . Gregory E . Rohleder, Nicolas . Stetler, Cinnamon . Kirschbaum, Clemens . Clinical depression and regulation of the inflammatory response during acute stress . Psychosomatic Medicine . October 2005 . 67 . 5 . 679–687 . 10.1097/01.psy.0000174172.82428.ce . 16204423 . 2175948 .
  123. Miller . Gregory E . Rohleder, Nicolas . Cole, Steve W . Chronic interpersonal stress predicts activation of pro- and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways 6 months later . Psychosomatic Medicine . January 2009 . 71 . 1 . 57–62 . 10.1097/PSY.0b013e318190d7de . 19073750 . 2720615.
  124. Taylor . Shelley E . Lehman, Barbara J . Kiefe, Catarina I . Seeman, Teresa E . Relationship of early life stress and psychological functioning to adult C-reactive protein in the coronary artery risk development in young adults study . Biological Psychiatry . 15 October 2006 . 60 . 8 . 819–824 . 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.016 . 16712805. 8988861 .
  125. Wilder . R L . Neuroendocrine-immune system interactions and autoimmunity . Annual Review of Immunology . 1995 . 13 . 307–338 . 10.1146/annurev.iy.13.040195.001515 . 7612226.
  126. Jan . Badar U . Coyle, Susette M . Macor, Marie A . Reddell, Michael . Calvano, Steve E . Lowry, Stephen F . Relationship of basal heart rate variability to in vivo cytokine responses after endotoxin exposure . Shock . April 2010 . 33 . 4 . 363–368 . 10.1097/SHK.0b013e3181b66bf4 . 20407404 . 2980578.
  127. Marsland . Anna L . Gianaros, Peter J . Prather, Aric A . Jennings, J Richard . Neumann, Serina A . Manuck, Stephen B . Stimulated production of proinflammatory cytokines covaries inversely with heart rate variability . Psychosomatic Medicine . November 2007 . 69 . 8 . 709–716 . 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181576118 . 17942840. 30782902 .

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Social stress".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.