Proto-Sino-Tibetan language explained

Proto-Sino-Tibetan
Also Known As:PST, Proto-Trans-Himalayan
Familycolor:Sino-Tibetan
Target:Sino-Tibetan languages
Child1:Proto-Sinitic (see Old Chinese)
Child2:Proto-Tibeto-Burman

Proto-Sino-Tibetan (PST) is the hypothetical linguistic reconstruction of the Sino-Tibetan proto-language and the common ancestor of all languages in it, including the Sinitic languages, the Tibetic languages, Yi, Bai, Burmese, Karen, Tangut, and Naga. Paul K. Benedict (1972) placed a particular emphasis on Old Chinese, Classical Tibetan, Jingpho, Written Burmese, Garo, and Mizo in his discussion of Proto-Sino-Tibetan.

While Proto-Sino-Tibetan is commonly considered to have two direct descendants, Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman,[1] in recent years several scholars have argued that this was not well-substantiated,[2] and have taken to calling the group "Trans-Himalayan". In this case, Proto-Tibeto-Burman may be considered as equivalent to Proto-Sino-Tibetan if Sinitic is indeed not the first branch to split from Proto-Sino-Tibetan.[3]

Features

Reconstructed features include prefixes such as the causative s-, the intransitive m-, the miscellaneous b-, d-, g-, and r-, suffixes -s, -t, and -n, and a set of conditioning factors that resulted in the development of tone in most languages of the family.[4] The existence of such elaborate system of inflectional changes in Proto-Sino-Tibetan makes the language distinctive from some of its modern descendants, such as the Sinitic languages, which have mostly or completely become analytic.

Proto-Sino-Tibetan, like Old Chinese, also included numerous consonant clusters, and was not a tonal language.

Phonology

Benedict (1972)

The table below shows consonant phonemes reconstructed by Benedict.

PlosiveFricativeSonorant
Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Nasal Other
Labialp b m w
Dentalt d s z n r
Palatalc ʒ y
Laterall
Velark g h ŋ

Peiros & Starostin (1996)

The reconstruction by Peiros & Starostin suggests a much more complex consonant inventory.[5] The phonemes in brackets are reconstructions that are considered dubious.

Plosive/AffricateFricativeSonorant
UnaspiratedAspirated
Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced
Labialp b pʰ (bʰ) m w
Dentalt d tʰ (dʰ) n r
Alveolarc ʒ cʰ (ʒʰ) s
Palatalć ʒ́ ćʰ ʒ́ʰ ś ń y
Lateral(ƛ) l
Velark g kʰ (gʰ) x ɣ ŋ
Uvular(q) (ɢ) (qʰ) (ɢʰ) (χ)
Laryngealʔ

Hill (2019)

The following tables show the reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan phonemes by Nathan Hill (2019).

- ! colspan=2 Uvular ! Labiouvular - ! colspan=2
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
- ! rowspan=2 Plosive !
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
- !
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
- ! rowspan=2 Affricate !
  • pronounced as /link/
- !
  • pronounced as /link/
- ! colspan=2
  • (pronounced as /link/)
- ! colspan=2
  • pronounced as /link/
  • pronounced as /link/
- ! colspan=2
  • pronounced as /r/

The consonants pronounced as //p t k q ʔ m n ŋ l r j// can take coda position, as well as the cluster pronounced as //rl//. While Hill does not reconstruct pronounced as //j// as an initial consonant due to Baxter and Sagart's Old Chinese reconstruction lacking such a phoneme, he mentions that Jacques and Schuessler suggest a pronounced as //j// initial for some Old Chinese words due to potential Tibetan or Rgyalrongic cognates.

pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/

Hill also claims that his reconstruction is incomplete, as it does not account for Tibetic palatalization, proto-Burmish preglottalization, Sinitic aspirates, and the Sinitic type A and B distinction of syllables.

Sound changes

Final consonant changes

In Gong Huangcheng's reconstruction of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan language, the finals *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ in Proto-Sino-Tibetan remained in Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman. However, in Old Chinese, the finals *-k and *-ŋ that came after the close vowel *-i- underwent an irregular change of *-k＞*-t and *-ŋ ＞*-n. In Proto-Tibeto-Burman, *-kw and *-ŋw underwent a sound change to become *-k and *-ŋ respectively, while in Old Chinese those finals remained until Middle Chinese, where the finals underwent the same sound change.[6]

Furthermore, in Proto-Tibeto-Burman, the finals *-g, *-gw, and *-d underwent the following changes:

  1. *-d＞*-y
  2. *-gw＞*-w
  3. *-g＞*-w when it follows the vowel *-u-
  4. *-g＞*-∅ when it follows the vowel *a and *-a-.

Example of sound changes

Voiceless plosive finals

!!Proto-Sino-Tibetan!Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)!Proto-Tibeto-Burman
  • -p
  • -jəp
汲 *kjəp
  • ka·p
泣 *khrjəp
  • krap
立 *(g-)rjəp
  • g-ryap
  • -jap
接 *tsjap
  • tsyap
  • -jup
入 *njəp
  • nup~ *nip
  • -t
  • -iat
八 *priat
  • b-r-gyat
殺 *r-siat
  • g-sat
  • -uat
脫 *hluat
  • g-lwat
  • -jit
一 *·jit
  • it
  • -k
  • -ək
翼 *lək
  • lak
  • -jək
織 *tjək
  • tak
息 *sjək
  • sak
食 *N-ljək
  • (m-)lyak
飼 *s-ljəks
  • (s-)lyak
  • -ik
節 *tsik＞*tsit
  • tsik
縊 *·iks, *·jiks
  • ik
  • -jik
蝨 *srjik＞*srjit
  • s-rik
  • -juk
曲 *khjuk
  • guk~kuk
  • -kw
  • -əkw
毒 *dəkw
  • duk~*tuk
  • -jəkw
腹 *phjəkw, *bjəkw
  • pu·k~*buk
六 *drjəkw
  • d-ruk

Nasal finals

!!Proto-Sino-Tibetan!Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)!Proto-Tibeto-Burman
  • -m
  • -əm
含 *gəm
  • gam
頷 *gəm
  • gam
  • -jəm
飲 *·jəmx
  • am
尋 *ljəm
  • la[·]m
  • -jim
坅 *khjamx “pit”
  • kim
  • -um
三 *səm
  • g-sum
  • -jum
尋 *ljəm
  • lum
  • -n
  • -an
乾 *kan
  • kan
  • -jin
辛 *sjin
  • m-sin
  • -ng
  • -jəng
夢 *mjəngs
  • mang
蒸 *tjəng
  • tang
  • -jang
紡 *phjangx
  • pang
涼 *grjang
  • grang
迎 *ngrjang
  • ngang
  • -ing
盈 *bling
  • bling~pling
  • -jing
年 *ning＞*nin
  • ning
名 *mjing
  • r-ming
甥 *srjing
  • sring
薪 *sjing＞*sjin
  • sing
仁 *njing＞*njin
  • s-ning
  • -ngw
  • -jəngw
躬 *kjəngw
  • gung

Voiced plosive finals

!!Proto-Sino-Tibetan!Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)!Proto-Tibeto-Burman
  • -b
  • -əb
柔 *njəb＞*njəgw
  • nəw
  • -d
  • -əd
  • smjədx
  • məy
  • -ad
簸 *padx/s
  • pwa·y
太  *tads
  • tay
蜾 *kwadx
  • kwa·y
我 *ngadx
  • ngay
移 *lad
  • lay
  • -id
四 *sjids
  • b-liy
  • -jid
妣 *pjidx
  • piy
畀 *sbjids
  • biy
几 *krjidx
  • kriy
屎 *skhljidx
  • kliy
死 *sjidx
  • siy
  • -g
  • -əg       
母 *məgx
  • ma
  • -jəg     
負 *bjəgx
  • ba, *bak
子 *tsjəgx
  • tsa
慈 *dzjəg
  • m-dza
孳 *dzjəgs
  • za
耳 *njəgx
  • r-na~*g-na
牛 *ngwjəg
  • ngwa
  • -ag
補 *pagx
  • pa
苦 *khagx
  • ka
吾 *ngag
  • nga
五 *ngagx
  • l-nga~*b-nga
狐 *gwag
  • gwa
  • -jag
斧 *pjagx
  • r-pwa
夫 *pjag
  • (p)wa
父 *bjagx
  • pa
無 *mjag
  • ma
魚 *ngjag
  • ngya
咀 *dzjag
  • dza
汝 *njagx
  • na
  • -ug
口 *khugx
  • kuw
寇 *khugs
  • r-kuw
  • -jug
霧 *m(r)jugs
  • (r-)muw
軀 *khjug
  • (s-)kuw
乳 *njugx
  • nuw
  • -gw
  • -əgw
寶 *pəgwx
  • puw
抱 *bəgwx
  • buw
  • -jəgw
鳩 *kjəgw
  • kuw
九 *kjəgwx
  • d-kuw
舅 *gjəgwx
  • kuw
  • -agw
豪 *gagw
  • m/s-gaw
號 *gagws
  • gaw
熬 *ngagw
  • r-ngaw
臊 *sagw
  • sa·w
  • -jagw
飄/漂 *phjagw
  • pyaw

Liquid finals

!!Proto-Sino-Tibetan!Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei)!Proto-Tibeto-Burman
  • -l
  • -al
肝 *kan
  • m-kal
  • -ul
本 *pən
  • bul~*pul
  • -jul
銀 *ngjən
  • (d)-ngul
閩 *mjən
  • s-brul
  • -jal
疲 *brjal
  • bal
  • -il
洒 *silx
  • (m-)s(y)il
  • -r
  • -ar
播 *s-bars
  • bwar
皤 *bar, *par
  • pwa:r
  • -jar
販 *pjans
  • par
鮮 *sjan
  • sar
  • -uar
酸 *suan
  • swa·r
  • -jur
飛 *pjər
  • pur~*pir

Vocabulary

Words which do not have reliable Sinitic parallels are accompanied by a (TB).

Social terms

EnglishReconstruction byOld Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)[7]
I. Peiros & S. StarostinJ. Matisoff
Person (in general)
  • mĭ
  • mi
民 *mi[ŋ]
Male
  • pă
  • pʷa
父 *p(r)aʔ
Female
  • mǝw
  • mow
母 *mˤoʔ (or məʔ)
Name (of a person)
  • miǝŋ
  • miŋ
名 *C.meŋ

Natural phenomena

EnglishReconstruction byOld Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)
I. Peiros & S. StarostinJ. Matisoff
Earth
  • ƛăy
  • ley ~ *lǝy
地 *[l]ˤej-s
Stone
  • ƛɨāŋ ~ *ƛɨāk
  • luŋ ~ *luk
琭 *[r]ˤok
Sand
  • srāy
  • sa
沙 *sˤraj
Fire
  • mēyH
  • mey
火 *[qʷʰ]ˤəjʔ
Smoke
  • gʰiw
  • kǝw
熏 *qʰu[n]
Water
  • tujʔ
  • t(w)i(y)
水 *s.turʔ
Rain
  • (r-)qʰʷăH
  • rwa ~ *wa
雨 *C.ɢʷ(r)aʔ
Sun
  • nĭy
  • nǝy
日 *C.nik
Moon (TB)
  • (s-)lăH
  • la
N/A
Star
  • (s-)q(ʰ)ār
  • kar
扈 *m-qˤaʔ
Night
  • yăH
  • ya
夜 *[ɢ]Ak-s
Tree
  • sĭŋ
  • siŋ ~ *sik
薪 *[s]i[n]
Leaf
  • lăp
  • lap
葉 *l[a]p
Plant root
  • bʰūl
  • bul ~ *pul
本 *C.pˤə[n]ʔ

Qualitative features of an object

EnglishReconstruction byOld Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)
I. Peiros & S. StarostinJ. Matisoff
Black, dark (TB)
  • nǝk
  • nak
黑 *m̥ˤək
Whitewār
  • hwār
皤 *[b]ˤar
Big
  • tayH
  • tay
大 *lˤa[t]-s
Cold
  • (k-)răŋ ~ *(k-)răk
  • glak ~ *glaŋ ~ *graŋ
涼 *C.raŋ
Warm
  • lɨm
  • lim ~ *lum
融 *luŋ
Long (TB)
  • rĭŋ
  • riŋ
N/A
New
  • cʰăr
  • sar
鮮 *s[a]r

Verb stems

EnglishReconstruction byOld Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)
I. Peiros & S. StarostinJ. Matisoff
To eat
  • ʒʰa
  • dzya
咀 *dzaɁ
To drink
  • dʰɨn ~ *dʰɨŋ
  • daŋ ~ *doŋ
To bite/chew
  • wā
  • wa
To die
  • sĭy(H)
  • sǝy
死 *sijʔ
To know, to think
  • siǝH
  • syey
悉 *[s]i[t]
To hear (TB)
  • tʰa(s)
  • ta
N/A
To sleep
  • mĭyH
  • mwǝy
寐 *mi[t]-s
To stand
  • ryǝp
  • r(y)ap
立 *k.rәp
To sit
  • tūŋ ~ *tūk
  • duŋ ~ *duk ~ *tuŋ ~ *tuk
住 *dro(ʔ)-s
Give
  • pĭy
  • bǝy
畀 *pi[k]‑s

Numbers

NumberReconstruction byOld Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)Old Tibetan Old Burmese
I. Peiros & S. StarostinJ. Matisoff
1
  • dyiǝk
  • dik ~ *t(y)ik ~ *t(y)ak
一 *ʔi[t], 隻 *tek gcig tac
2
  • nĭy
  • ni
二 *ni[j]-s gnyis nhac
3
  • sɨm
  • sum
三 *s.rum gsum sumḥ
4
  • lĭy
  • lǝy
四 *s.li[j]-s bzhi liy
5
  • ŋāH
  • ŋa
五 *C.ŋˤaʔ lnga ṅāḥ
6
  • rŭk
  • ruk
六 *k.ruk drug khrok
7
  • (s-)nĭt
  • ni
七 *[tsʰ]i[t] N/A khu-nac
8
  • ryēt
  • gyat ~ *ryat ~ *rit
八 *pˤret brgyad rhac
9
  • kwɨH
  • gǝw ~ *kǝw
九 *[k]uʔ dgu kuiḥ
10
  • k(ʰ)ĭp
  • g(y)ip
十 *t.[g]әp N/A kip
100
  • (p-)ryā
  • gya
百 *pˤrak brgya ryā

See also

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Sagart. Laurent. Jacques. Guillaume. Lai. Yunfan. Ryder. Robin J.. Thouzeau. Valentin. Greenhill. Simon J.. List. Johann-Mattis. 6 May 2019. Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.. 116. 21. 10317–10322. 10.1073/pnas.1817972116. free. 31061123. 6534992. 2019PNAS..11610317S.
  2. Orlandi. Georg. 2021. Once again on the history and validity of the Sino-Tibetan bifurcate model. Journal of Language Relationship . 19. 4. 263-292.
  3. van Driem. George. The diversity of the Tibeto-Burman language family and the linguistic ancestry of Chinese. Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics. 2007. 1. 2. 211–270. 10.1163/2405478X-90000023 .
  4. Encyclopedia: Egerod. Søren Christian. Sino-Tibetan languages - Linguistic characteristics. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 July 2019.
  5. Book: Peiros . Ilia . Starostin . S.A. . A comparative vocabulary of five Sino-Tibetan languages . 1996 . Univ. of Melbourne, Dept. of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics . Parkville, VIC . 9780732513504.
  6. zh:古今通塞：漢語的歷史與發展 . 187–223 . zh:第㆔屆國際漢學會議論文集語言組 . Hwang-cherng . Gong . Gong Huangcheng (龔煌城) . zh:從原始漢藏語到上古漢語以及原始藏緬語的韻母演變 . Final changes from Proto-Sino-Tibetan to Old Chinese and Proto-Tibeto-Burman. 2003 . http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/o0005_08_4369.pdf . 22 October 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201103131246/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/o0005_08_4369.pdf . 2020-11-03 . zh.
  7. Web site: Baxter . William H. . Sagart . Laurent . The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese . The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese . 10 August 2022.

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