Proto-Iroquoian language explained

Proto-Iroquoian
Familycolor:American
Era:ca. 1500 BCE
Target:Iroquoian languages

Proto-Iroquoian is the theoretical proto-language of the Iroquoian languages. Lounsbury (1961) estimated from glottochronology a time depth of 3,500 to 3,800 years for the split of North and South Iroquoian.

At the time of early European contact, French explorers in the 16th century encountered villages along the St. Lawrence River, now associated with the St. Lawrence Iroquoian. Other better known northern tribes took over their territory and displaced them, and were later encountered by more French, European and English colonists. These tribes included the Huron and Neutral in modern-day Ontario, first encountered by French explorers and traders; the Five Nations of the Iroquois League in Upstate New York and Pennsylvania, and the Erie Nation and Susquehannock peoples in Pennsylvania.

Southern speakers of Iroquoian languages ranged from the Cherokee in the Great Smoky Mountains, to the Tuscarora and Nottoway in the interior near the modern Virginia/North Carolina border.

Subdivisions

The Iroquoian languages are usually divided into two main groups: Southern Iroquoian (Cherokee) and Northern Iroquoian (all others) based on the great differences in vocabulary and modern phonology. Northern Iroquoian is further divided by Lounsbury and Mithun into Proto-Tuscarora-Nottoway and Lake Iroquoian. Julian (2010) does not believe Lake Iroquoian to be a valid subgrouping.

History of studies

Isolated studies were done by Chafe (1977a), Michelson (1988), and Rudes (1995). There have also been several works of internal reconstruction for daughter languages, in particular Seneca and Mohawk. A preliminary full reconstruction of Proto-Iroquoian was not provided until Charles Julian's (2010) work.

Phonology

Proto-Iroquoian as reconstructed shares the Iroquoian languages' notable typological traits of small consonant inventories, complex consonant clusters, and a lack of labial consonants.

Vowels

The reconstructed vowel inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is:

FrontCentralBack
Closepronounced as /i/   pronounced as /iː/pronounced as /u/   pronounced as /uː/
Midpronounced as /e/   pronounced as /eː/   pronounced as /ẽ/   pronounced as /ẽː/pronounced as /o/   pronounced as /oː/   pronounced as /õ/   pronounced as /õː/
Openpronounced as /a/   pronounced as /aː/
Like later Iroquoian languages, Proto-Iroquoian is distinguished in having nasal vowels pronounced as //õ// and pronounced as //ẽ//, although it has more than in its daughter languages.

Consonants

The reconstructed consonant inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants (Lounsbury 1978:337).

AlveolarPalatalVelarGlottal
Plosivepronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/   pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Affricatepronounced as /link/
Fricativepronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Nasalpronounced as /link/
Approximantpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/

Morphology

Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010):

No. Gloss Proto-Iroquoian Proto-Northern
Iroquoian
1 'negative'
  • teʔ
2 'coincident' (perhaps also relativizer)
  • ts
3 'contrastive'
  • thi
4 'partitive'
  • ijiː
5 'translocative'
  • wi
6 'factual'
  • waʔ
7 'duplicative'
  • teː
8 'future'
  • ẽː
9 'optative'
  • aɹa
10 'cislocative'
  • t
11 'repetitive'
  • ts
12 'non-singular animate'
  • ka
13 '1:2.SG'
  • kõː
14 '1:2.DU'
  • kni
15 '1:2.PL'
  • kwa
16 '2:1.SG'
  • hskʷi
17 '2:1.DU'
  • hskniː
18 '2:1.PL'
  • hskʷ…
19 '1SG:3'
  • ki
20 1SG:3A' (> PNI '1SG:3I')
  • kiji
21 '1SG:3M'
  • he or *hɹi
22 '2SG:3'
  • hsi
23 2SG:3A' (> PNI '2SG:3I')
  • hsiji
24 '2SG:3M'
  • hehse
25 '3:1SG'
  • wakʷi
26 3A:1SG' (> PNI '3I:1SG')
  • jõːkʷi
27 '3M:1SG'
  • hɹake
28 '3:2SG'
  • tsa
29 3A:2SG' (> PNI 3I:2SG')
  • jeːtsa
30 '3M:2SG'
  • hja
31 '2DU&3'
  • tsniː
32 '2DU&3M'
  • hshetsni
33 '2PL&3'
  • ts…
34 '2PL&3M'
  • hshetswa
35 '2NS&3I'
  • jetshi
36 '1+2DU:3'
  • tniː
37 '1+2DU:3M'
  • hshetni
38 '1+2PL:3'
  • t…
39 '1+2PL:3M'
  • hshetwa
40 '1+3DU:3'
  • jakni
41 '1+3DU:3M'
  • hshakni
42 '1+3PL:3'
  • jakwa
43 '1+3PL:3M'
  • hshakwa
44 '3:1DU'
  • kniː
45 '3M:1DU'
  • hshõkni
46 '3:1PL'
  • kʷ…
47 '3M:1PL'
  • hshõkwa
48 '1+2NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • jethi
49 1+3NS:3I' (> Hu. 1NS:3I)
  • jakhi
50 3I:1NS' (> Tu. '1NS&3I')
  • jõkhi
51 '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • ka
52 '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • wa
53 '3SGM:3'
  • hɹa
54 '3:3SG'
  • juː
55 '3:3SGM'
  • hɹo
56 '3DU:3'
  • kni
57 '3DUM:3'
  • hni
58 3NS:3' (> PNI '3PL:3')
  • wantiː
59 '3PL:3' (second variant, in competition with *wati, #58)
  • kõti
60 '3PLM:3'
  • hɹati
61 '3:3NS'
  • juːntiː
62 '3:3NSM'
  • hɹoti
63 '3I:3'
  • je
64 '3:3I'
  • jako
65 '3SGM:3I'
  • hshako
66 3A:3SGA' (> Ch. '3NS:3SG', PNI '3I:3SG')
  • kõːwa
67 '3I:3SGM'
  • hɹõwa
68 3A:3NSA' (> Ch. '3NS:3NS', PNI '3I:3NS')
  • kõːwantiː
69 '3I:3NSM'
  • hɹõwati
70 '3NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • jakoti
71 '3NSM:3I' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • hshakoti
72 '2:1.SG.IMP'
  • take
73 '2:1.DU.IMP'
  • takni
74 '1:2.PL.IMP'
  • takwa
75 '2SG:3.IMP'
  • tse
76 'reflexive'
  • ataːt
77 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • at
78 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • aɹ
79 'joiner vowel'
  • a
80 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • hsɹ
81 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • ʔtshɹ
82 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • t
83 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • hst
84 'instrumental'
  • hkw
85 'reversive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1)
  • kʷ
86 'reversive' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • hsj
87 'inchoative'
  • ʔ
88 'dative-benefactive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1)
  • ts
89 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • ẽ
90 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 3)
  • ni
91 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • n
92 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • h
93 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 3)
  • ts
94 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 4)
  • tsɹ
95 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 5, limited to Iroquoia)
  • ɹ
96 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • njõː
97 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • nõː
98 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 3)
  • hõː
99 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 4)
  • õː
100 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 5)
  • ɹõː
101 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 6)
  • ɹjõː
102 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 7)
  • tsõː
103 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 8)
  • tsɹõː
104 'progressive'
  • tjeʔ
105 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • hs
106 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • ts
107 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 3)
  • haʔ
108 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 4)
  • h
109 'imperfective suffix' (cf. Cherokee imperfective verbs inhsk)
  • hsk
110 'past habitual suffix'
  • kʷ
111 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • ʔ
112 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • ẽʔ
113 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 3)
  • Ø
114 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 4)
  • n
115 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • õh
116 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • ẽh
117 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 3)
  • Ø
118 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 4)
  • eʔ
119 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 5)
  • ih
120 'past perfect suffix'
  • n
121 'facilitative suffix'
  • nskõːh
122 'modalizer suffix'
  • k
123 'noun suffix'
  • aʔ
124 'authenticative suffix'
  • õweh
125 'characterizer suffix'
  • haːʔ
126 'decessive suffix'
  • kẽh
127 'intensifier suffix'
  • tsih
128 'locative suffix'
  • keh
129 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 1)
  • ɹonõʔ
130 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 2)
  • kaːʔ

Lexicon

Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010):

No. Gloss Proto-Iroquoian Proto-Northern
Iroquoian 		Proto-Mohawk-
Oneida 		Huron
(Common Huron-Petun)
131 'path, road, trail'
  • -ah-, *-(a)hah-
132 'be bad, be ugly, be useless'
  • -(a)hetkẽʔ
133 'be salty, be sour'
  • -ahjoʔtsihs, *-oʔtsihst-
134 'bark, wood, wood chips'
  • -ahkaɹ-
135 'be ten'
  • -ahnshẽːh
136 'ear'
  • -(a)hõht-
137 'count'
  • -(a)hɹaːt-
138 'hear, speak a language, understand'
  • -ahɹõk-
139 'foot'
  • -aːhs-, *-aːhsiʔt-
140 'three'
  • ahsẽh
141 'string'
  • ahsɹijeʔ
142 'shoe'
  • -ahtahkʷ-, *ahtaʔ
143 'be forbidden, be prohibited, be strict, be taboo'
  • -ahtjawẽɹeʔ
144 'abandon, give up, leave behind, let go, quit, release'
  • -ahtkaʔw-
145 'disappear, vanish'
  • -ahtõ-, *-ahtõʔ-
146 'hide'
  • -ahtseht-
147 'argue for, compete for, contend for, fight for'
  • -ahtskehnh-
148 'not yet, still'
  • ahtsõh, *atsõh
149 'night'
  • -ahtsõːh-
150 'connect, fasten, join together'
  • -ahtsõtɹ-
151 'be durable, be hard, be strong'
  • -akanst-, *-anst-, *-kanst-
152 'be a number, be an amount, be that many'
  • -akeːh, *-keːh
153 'be bad'
  • -aksẽːh
154 'cry'
  • -anstaɹ-
155 'outdoors, outside'
  • ansteh
156 'shoe'
  • -aɹaːhsu-
157 'be cousins'
  • -aɹaʔtseːʔ
158 'about, almost, approximately'
  • aɹeʔ
159 'be inside, be one, be present, be within, exist'
  • -aːt
160 'speak, talk'
  • -atati-, *-atatj-
161 'bathe, swim'
  • -atawẽ-
162 'climb over, go over'
  • -atawẽːhɹat-
163 'be ashamed, be embarrassed'
  • -ateːhẽːh-
164 'be burning, burn'
  • -atek-
165 'burn, cause to burn, light a fire'
  • -atekaʔt-
166 'use to light a fire'
  • -atekaʔtahkw-
167 'be a doctor, cure, heal'
  • -atetsjẽʔt-
168 'food taken along, provisions'
  • -atẽnaʔtshɹ-
169 'be a member of the Wolf Clan' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -athahjõniːh
170 'be cold, be cold out, cold'
  • -athoɹ-, *athoʔ
171 'hear'
  • -athõː-
172 'garter' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -athsinh-, *-athsinhatshɹ-
173 'be burnt, be consumed, be used up, burn, use oneself up'
  • -athsʔaht-
174 'abandon, throw, throw out'
  • -ati-, *-atj-, *-õti-, *-õtj-
175 'draw, pull, stretch'
  • -atiɹõːt-
176 'get dressed, put on' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -atjaʔtawiʔt-
177 'harbour, hold back, keep'
  • -atjenawahst-
178 'be cheap, be easy, be profligate, squander'
  • -atjets-
179 'look at'
  • -atkahthw-
180 'purulence, pus'
  • -atkẽhtsɹ-
181 'be a sorcerer, be a spirit, have inherent power'
  • -atkõʔ
182 'axe'
  • atokẽʔ
183 'spoon' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -atokw-, *-atokwaʔtshɹ-
184 'hunt'
  • -atoɹaːt-
185 'breathe'
  • -atõːɹ-
186 'laugh, laugh out loud' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -atõtaɹikt-
187 'meet, meet by chance'
  • -atɹaʔ-
188 'grandchild, have as grandchild'
  • -atɹe-
189 'be green, be new'
  • -atseːʔ
190 'be glad, be happy'
  • -atshẽnõni-
191 'dry out, dry up, evaporate, run dry'
  • -atst-, *-atstathẽ-
192 'abandon, lend, let go, spare' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -atwẽteht-
193 'fence, palisade'
  • -atʔẽhɹ-
194 'belong to, own, possess'
  • -awẽh
195 'stir'
  • -awẽɹi-, *-awẽɹj-
196 'water'
  • awẽʔ
197 'be small'
  • -aʔ-, *-aʔaːh
198 'lace, net, netting, web' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -aʔaɹ-
199 'dew'
  • -aʔawj –
200 'strike'
  • -aʔe-
201 'become dark, become night'
  • -aʔkaɹaʔ-, *-aʔkɹaʔ-
202 'snow, snowflake' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -aʔkɹ-
203 'turtle' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -aʔnowaɹ-, *-ʔnowaɹ-
204 'be hot, be warm'
  • -aʔtaɹihẽːh
205 'heat, sweat'
  • -aʔtaɹihẽhsɹ-
206 'axe'
  • -aʔtsɹ-
207 'be extinguished, fire to go out'
  • -aʔtsw-
208 'extinguish, put out a fire'
  • -aʔtswaht-
209 'come, go, go on foot, walk'
  • -e-
210 'remember'
  • -ehjahɹ-
211 'believe, think'
  • -eːɹ-
212 'heart'
  • -eɹjahs-
213 'a lot, much'
  • etsoʔ, *itsoʔ, *itswaʔ
214 'above, high, over'
  • eʔnkẽh, *heʔnkẽh
215 'flower' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -ẽh-
216 'day' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -ẽhnitsɹ-
217 'be uncle to, have as nephew or niece'
  • -ẽhwatẽʔ, *-jẽhwatẽʔ
218 'be born, establish oneself'
  • -ẽnakɹaːt-
219 'day'
  • -ẽt-
220 'be finished, be over, be prepared, be ready, come to an end'
  • -ẽtaʔ-
221 'drop, fall'
  • -ẽʔ-
222 'nine'
  • ẽʔtɹõʔ, *waʔtɹõh, *waʔtɹõʔ
223 'council fire, flame, torch'
  • -hahsɹ-
224 'cornstalk, grass'
  • -heɹ-
225 'shout, yell'
  • -hẽɹeht-
226 'clearing, field, meadow'
  • -hẽt-
227 'mark, write'
  • -hjatõ-
228 'book, something marked, something written'
  • -hjatõhsɹ-
229 'claw'
  • -hkaɹ-
230 'current, moving water, rapids'
  • -hnaw-
231 'arm, shoulder'
  • -hnẽː-
232 'command, employ, hire'
  • -hnhaʔ-
233 'door'
  • -hnhoh-, *-hnhohw-
234 'close a door, door to be closed'
  • -hnhotõ-
235 'have jowls protruding' (> cattle, cow)
  • -hnh(o/õ)hskʷ(a/e)ɹõːt
236 'feed, put in the mouth'
  • -hnhõtho-, *-hnhõthw-
237 'be durable, be hard, be solid, be strong'
  • -hniɹ-
238 'thigh'
  • -hnitsh-
239 'neck, throat'
  • -hnj-
240 'tie'
  • -hnɹ-
241 'basswood'
  • -hohsɹ-, *-hotsɹ-
242 'bread'
  • -hɹahkʷ-
243 'feather'
  • -hɹaʔt-
244 'cut'
  • -hɹen-
245 'fall, fall over'
  • -hɹjenẽʔ-, *-ʔɹhjenẽʔ-
246 'tell' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -hɹoɹi-, *-hɹoɹj-
247 'name, reputation'
  • -hsẽn-
248 'dough' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -hsheʔɹ-,-hsheʔɹh-
249 'depression, depth, hole, hollow.
  • -hshõw-
250 'detest, dislike, hate'
  • -hshwahẽ-, *-hshwẽ-
251 'ankle, knee'
  • -hsinkoʔt-
252 'slow'
  • -hskanẽ-
253 'be good' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -hskaːths
254 'deer'
  • -hskẽnõtõʔ
255 'bone'
  • -hskẽʔɹ-; *-hskẽʔɹakeht- 'be a warrior', lit. 'carry the bone'
256 'head'
  • -hskʷ-
257 'finger, hand'
  • -hsnõhs-, *-hsnõʔ
258 'be fast, be quick'
  • -hsnuːɹiʔ
259 'be ancestor to, be grandparent to'
  • -hsoːt
260 'build, make, prepare'
  • -hsɹõːn-
261 'use'
  • -hst-
262 'marrow'
  • -hstahɹõw-
263 'be little, be small'
  • -hsthwih, *-hstwih
264 'back'
  • -hsw-
265 'board, wood'
  • -hswẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkhaɹ-
266 'complete, exhaust, finish'
  • -hsʔ-, *-ihsʔ-
267 'have as older sibling, have as older maternal female cousin'
  • -htsiʔ
268 'colour, dye, paint'
  • -htsuːhw-
269 'family'
  • -hwatsiɹ-
270 'be round'
  • -hweʔnõniːh
271 'foam'
  • -hwẽʔnst-
272 'force, strength'
  • -hwihsh-
273 'five'
  • hwihsk
274 'metal, money'
  • -hwihst-
275 'be, be the one, exist'
  • -iː-
276 'be dead, die'
  • -ihej-
277 'cross over'
  • -ihjaʔk-, *-jahjaʔk-
278 'creek, river'
  • -ijhõh-, *-ijhõhw-, *-wjhõh-
279 'be beautiful, be good, be great'
  • -ijoːh
280 'emerge, go out, put out'
  • -inkẽʔ-
281 'far'
  • iːnõh
282 'mattress, sheet, spread'
  • -inskaɹ-
283 'be sitting, sit' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -inskoːt
284 'saliva, spit, spittle'
  • -inskɹ-
285 'fish scale'
  • -inst-
286 'cliff, rock, rock bank'
  • -instẽhɹ-, *-nstẽhɹ-
287 'sleep'
  • -itaʔw-, *-itʔo-
288 'crowd, group'
  • -itjohkʷ-
289 'you'
  • iːts
290 'shoot'
  • -iʔaːk-, *-iʔjaːk-, *-ʔjaːk-
291 'clan, clay, hearth'
  • -iʔtaɹ-, *-ʔtaɹ-
292 'abide, dwell, reside, sit'
  • -iʔtɹõ-
293 'exit, go out, leave'
  • -jakẽʔ-
294 'footprint, gait, track'
  • -jan-
295 'be a chief, be good, be lawful, be proper' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -janɹ-
296 'law'
  • -janɹehsɹ-, *-janrẽhsɹ-
297 'break, cut'
  • -jaʔk-
298 'being, body, carcass, corpse, person'
  • -jaʔt-
299 'wake up'
  • -je-
300 'add, contribute, mix'
  • -jehst-
301 'capture, catch, grab'
  • -jena-, *-jenaw-
302 'act, do, happen to'
  • -jeɹ-
303 'be complete, be just, be perfect, be right'
  • -jeɹi-
304 'body'
  • -jeːɹõʔ-
305 'smile'
  • -jeːts-
306 'be situated, exist, have, put down, set down, sit down'
  • -jẽ-
307 'hit, strike'
  • -jẽht-
308 'firewood, wood' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -jẽt-
309 'accumulate, beget, get, obtain'
  • -jẽtaʔ-
310 'know'
  • -jẽteɹ-
311 'plant, sow'
  • -jẽtho-, *-jẽthw-
312 'flay, skin'
  • -jẽtsɹ-
313 'have as child'
  • -jẽʔ-
314 'smoke, tobacco'
  • -jẽʔkʷ-
315 'enter'
  • -jõ-
316 'eat'
  • -k-
317 'butterfly'
  • kahnaːwẽːh
318 'look at' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -kahnɹ-
319 'eye'
  • -kahɹ-
320 'four'
  • kajeɹih
321 'be old'
  • -kajõ-
322 'anywhere, somewhere' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • kankaʔ
323 'pipe'
  • kanõːnowẽʔ
324 'bite'
  • -kaɹ-
325 'account, price, story'
  • -kaɹ-
326 'roll, turn around' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -kaɹhateni-, *-kaɹhatenj-
327 'invert, roll over, turn over'
  • -kaɹhatho-, *-kaɹhathw-
328 'tree'
  • kaɹhit, *keɹhit, *keɹhiʔ, *kɹaheːt, *kɹahit
329 'come here!'
  • katsih
330 'paddle, row'
  • -kaweː-
331 'lift, raise'
  • -kensko-, *-kenskʷ-
332 'see'
  • -kẽ-, *-kẽːh
333 'be old'
  • -kẽhtsi-
334 'summer'
  • -kẽnh-
335 'be white'
  • -kẽɹat
336 'peel, scrape' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -kẽtsɹ-
337 'divide, separate'
  • -kh-, *-khahsi-, *-khahsj-, *-khahsk-
338 'elbow'
  • -khjuːhs-
339 'food, meal'
  • -khw-
340 'chipmunk'
  • kihɹjuʔkẽh
341 'dog'
  • kiːɹ
342 'hair'
  • -kiʔɹh-
343 'crow'
  • koːhkaːʔ
344 'be a lot, be many, be much'
  • -koʔtiʔ
345 'face'
  • -kõːhs-
346 'eel'
  • kõteh
347 'bowl, dish, plate'
  • -kts-
348 'acorn, oak'
  • kuːɹeh
349 'be big, be large'
  • -kuwa-, *-kʷa-
350 'pick up'
  • -kʷ-
351 'be able'
  • -kʷeni-, *-kʷenj-
352 'that, the, this'
  • nV(H)
353 'domestic animal, prisoner, slave'
  • -nahskʷ-
354 'be autochthonous, dwell, reside'
  • -nakɹ-
355 'bed, place, room, space'
  • -nakt-, *-nakʷt-
356 'camp, city, settlement, town, village'
  • -nat-
357 'grain, wheat'
  • -natsj-
358 'be melted, be warm, be wet'
  • -nawẽːh
359 'antler, horn'
  • -naʔkaɹ-
360 'imitate'
  • -naʔkeɹ-
361 'bread'
  • -naʔtaɹ-
362 'call' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -naʔtõhkʷ-
363 'cauldron, kettle, pail, pot'
  • -naʔtsj-
364 'liquid'
  • -neː-
365 'ice'
  • -neːhst-, *-neːhstwaɹ
366 'corn, grain, kernel'
  • -nẽh-
367 'now'
  • nẽh
368 'steal'
  • -nẽːhskʷ-
369 'sand; stone'
  • -nẽːj-
370 'arm'
  • -nẽtsh-
371 'be stingy' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -niʔ-
372 'marry'
  • -njaːk-
373 'neck'
  • -njaɹ-
374 'lake'
  • -njataɹ-
375 'wampum'
  • -nkoʔɹ-, *-nkoʔɹh-
376 'blood'
  • -nkõ-, *-nkʷẽhs-
377 'red' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -nkʷẽhtaɹ-
378 'begin to snow'
  • -nkʷẽʔ-
379 'be cold'
  • -noːh
380 'tooth'
  • -noʔts-, *-noʔtsj-
381 'medicine'
  • -nõhkʷ-, *-nõhkʷaʔt-, *-nõhkʷaʔtshɹ-
382 'house'
  • -nõhs-
383 'be painful, be sore, hurt'
  • -nõhwakt-
384 'admire, like'
  • -nõhweʔ-
385 'hill, mountain'
  • -nõt-
386 'corn soup, hominy' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -nõtaɹ-
387 'brain, head'
  • -nõːtsiː-
388 'breast, milk'
  • -nõʔt-
389 'fungus, mushroom'
  • -nɹahs-
390 'leaf'
  • -nɹaht-
391 'get involved, help'
  • -nsteːɹ-
392 'corn husk'
  • -nuːɹ-
393 'be difficult, be unable to, fail to do'
  • -nuːɹõ-
394 'winter, year'
  • -ohsɹ-
395 'throw' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -ojʔaːk-
396 'split'
  • -oɹẽ-
397 'be, be standing, exist, stand upright'
  • -oːt
398 'be at the end, end'
  • -oʔkt-
399 'dig' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -oʔkʷaːt-
400 'hand'
  • -oʔnj-
401 'be of a kind, be of a sort'
  • -oʔtẽːh
402 'earth, land, world'
  • -õhwẽtsj-
403 'go beyond, go through, leak, pass through, penetrate, reach'
  • -õːkuːh-
404 'sift'
  • -õːkuːhst-
405 'be a person, human being'
  • -õkʷeh, *-õkʷehsɹ-, *-õkʷeʔt-
406 'be alive, life, live'
  • -õːnh-
407 'rain'
  • -õnoːt-
408 'pot'
  • -õːt-
409 'put into the fire'
  • -õːt-
410 'be attached, have as a body part'
  • -õːt
411 'remove from the fire'
  • -õːtakʷ-
412 'be a lake, lake'
  • -õːtaɹiʔ
413 'be in, be on'
  • -ɹ-
414 'moon to be present, planet to be present, sun to be present'
  • -ɹ-
415 'moon, planet, sun'
  • -ɹahkʷ-
416 'erase, rub out, wipe out'
  • -ɹakew-
417 'choose, pick out, select'
  • -ɹako-, *-ɹakw-
418 'sap, syrup'
  • -ɹan-
419 'heel'
  • -ɹat-
420 'climb'
  • -ɹathẽ-, *-ɹaʔthẽ-
421 'adhere, stick, stick on'
  • -ɹaʔnẽtaːk-
422 'incantation, song, spell, witchcraft'
  • -ɹẽn-
423 'bush, forest, woods'
  • -ɹhat-
424 'coat with, put on'
  • -ɹho-
425 'be paternal aunt to'
  • -ɹhok
426 'socks, leggings'
  • -ɹiː-
427 'affair, business, thing, matter'
  • -ɹihw-
428 'fight, kill'
  • -ɹijo-, *-ɹjo-
429 'animal'
  • -ɹjoːʔ
430 'blue, sky'
  • -ɹõhj-
431 'log, tree'
  • -ɹõt-
432 'chop'
  • -ɹʔo-, *-ɹʔok-
433 'be present, exist'
  • -t-
434 'and, besides'
  • tahnũʔ
435 'run'
  • -takh-
436 'woodpecker'
  • taɹaːɹ
437 'flint'
  • tawiːhskaɹaʔ
438 'two'
  • tekniːh
439 'eight'
  • tekɹõʔ
440 'change'
  • -teni-, *-tenj-
441 'mosquito'
  • -tẽːhs-
442 'alternate, differ'
  • -tih-
443 'skunk'
  • tiʔɹ
444 'nearby' tjohskẽẽʔ
445 'snake' tjoʔxjẽtsihk
446 'decay, rot, spoil'
  • -tkẽː-
447 'how, how many, how much' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • toːh
448 'be certain, be exact, be true'
  • -tokẽːh
449 'stand'
  • -toʔn-
450 'bluejay' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • tɹiʔtɹiːʔ
451 'beans'
  • tsaheʔ, *-tsaheʔt-
452 'bottle, gourd, jar'
  • -tsheʔ, *-tsheʔt-, *-tsheʔw-
453 'club, fist, knot'
  • -tsihkʷ-
454 'robin'
  • tsiːhskʷoːʔkʷoːʔ
455 'otter, seal'
  • tsiːjẽh
456 'salt'
  • -tsikheʔt-
457 'be male'
  • -tsin
458 'fire'
  • -tsiːɹ
459 'coal, ember, fire, spark'
  • -tsist-
460 'fox, lynx'
  • tsitshoʔ
461 'bile, green, yellow'
  • -tsiʔnkʷaɹ-
462 'bird'
  • tsiʔtẽʔ
463 'corn tassel'
  • -tsiːʔtsiːʔ
464 'seven'
  • tsjatahk
465 'tobacco'
  • -tsjoːɹ-
466 'six; seven'
  • tsjotaɹeʔ
467 'fish'
  • -tsjõʔt-
468 'be daughter-in-law'
  • -tsoʔ
469 'dream, sleep'
  • -tsɹẽht-
470 'put into the water'
  • -uː-
471 'remove from the water'
  • -uːkʷ-
472 'cover'
  • -uːɹ-
473 'splash water, sprinkle'
  • -uːtsɹ-
474 'whippoorwill'
  • waʔkuhɹiːʔ
475 'say, speak'
  • -we-
476 'language, voice, word'
  • -wẽn-
477 'thumb' (limited to Iroquoia)
  • -whjõhkaɹ-
478 'young person'
  • -wiːnõːh
479 'baby, child, infant, offspring'
  • -wiɹ-
480 'arm, fin, wing'
  • -wj-
481 'wing'
  • -wjahũtsh-
482 'learn, teach'
  • -wjẽhst-
483 'know how, learn how'
  • -wjẽhw-, *-wjẽw-, *-wjẽʔ-
484 'craft, manner, skill, way'
  • -wjẽn-
485 'become capable, learn how'
  • -wjʌ̃tehtaʔ-
486 'be good'
  • -wohst
487 'air, wind'
  • -wɹ-
488 'arrow'
  • -ʔn-
489 'bone'
  • -ʔnẽj-
490 'egg'
  • -ʔnhõhs-
491 'mind, spirit'
  • -ʔnikõhɹ-
492 'be late, delay'
  • -ʔnitsko-, *-ʔnitskʷ-
493 'escape, flee, run away'
  • -ʔnjakẽʔ-
494 'nose'
  • -ʔnjõːhs-
495 'be envious, be jealous, envy'
  • -ʔnonsh-
496 'be powerful, be strong'
  • -ʔnshanst-
497 'drown, fall into water'
  • -ʔtskoʔ-
498 'drag, drive, pull, ride'
  • -ʔtsɹ-

References

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Proto-Iroquoian language".

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