Protegrin Explained

Symbol:N/A
Opm Family:203
Opm Protein:1pg1

Protegrins are small peptides containing 16-18 amino acid residues. Protegrins were first discovered in porcine leukocytes and were found to have antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and some enveloped viruses.[1] The amino acid composition of protegrins contains six positively charged arginine residues and four cysteine residues.[2] Their secondary structure is classified as cysteine-rich β-sheet antimicrobial peptides, AMPs, that display limited sequence similarity to certain defensins and tachyplesins. In solution, the peptides fold to form an anti-parallel β-strand with the structure stabilized by two cysteine bridges formed among the four cysteine residues.[3] Recent studies suggest that protegrins can bind to lipopolysaccharide, a property that may help them to insert into the membranes of gram-negative bacteria and permeabilize them.[4]

Structure

There are five known porcine protegrins, PG-1 to PG-5.[5] Three were identified biochemically and rest of them were deduced from DNA sequences.[6] The protegrins are synthesized from quadiripartite genes as 147 to 149 amino acid precursors with a cathelin-like propiece.[5] [7] Protegrin sequence is similar to certain prodefensins and tachyplesins, antibiotic peptides derived from the horseshoe crab.[1] Protegrin-1 that consists of 18 amino acids, six of which are arginine residues, forms two antiparallel β-sheets with a β-turn. Protegrin-2 is missing two carboxy terminal amino acids. So, Protegrin-2 is shorter than Protegrin-1 and it has one less positive charge. Protegrin-3 substitutes a glycine for an arginine at position 4 and it also has one less positive charge. Protegrin-4 substitutes a phenylalanine for a valine at position 14 and sequences are different in the β-turn. This difference makes protegrin-4 less polar than others and less positively charged. Protegrin-5 substitutes a proline for an arginine with one less positive charge.[5]

Mechanism of action

Protegrin-1 induces membrane disruption by forming a pore/channel that leads to cell death.[8] [9] This ability depends on its secondary structure.[10] It forms an oligomeric structure in the membrane that creates a pore. Two ways of the self association of protegrin-1 into a dimeric β-sheet, an antiparallel β-sheet with a turn-next-to-tail association or a parallel β-sheet with a turn-next-to-turn association,[11] were suggested. The activity can be restored by stabilizing the peptide structure with the two disulfide bonds.[12] The interacts with membranes depends on membrane lipid composition[13] and the cationic nature of the protegrin-1 adapts to the amphipathic characteristic which is related to the membrane interaction.[9] The insertion of Protegrin-1 into the lipid layer results in the disordering of lipid packing to the membrane disruption.[13]

Antimicrobial activity

The protegrins are highly microbicidal against Candida albicans,[14] Escherichia coli,[15] Listeria monocytogenes, Neisseria gonorrhoeae,[16] and the virions of the human immunodeficiency virus in vitro under conditions which mimic the tonicity of the extracellular milieu.[1] [5] [17] The mechanism of this microbicidal activity is believed to involve membrane disruption, similar to many other antibiotic peptides [5] [18]

Mimetics as antibiotics

Protegrin-1 (PG-1) peptidomimetics developed by Polyphor AG and the University of Zurich are based on the use of the beta hairpin-stabilizing D-Pro-L-Pro template which promote a beta hairpin loop structure found in PG-I. Fully synthetic cyclic peptide libraries of this peptidomimetic template produced compounds that had an antimicrobial activity like that of PG-1 but with reduced hemolytic activity on human red blood cells.[19] Iterative rounds of synthesis and optimization led to the pseudomonas-specific clinical candidate Murepavadin that successfully completed phase-II clinical tests in hospital patients with life-threatening Pseudomonas lung infections. [20]

Notes and References

  1. Kokryakov VN, Harwig SS, Panyutich EA, Shevchenko AA, Aleshina GM, Shamova OV, Korneva HA, Lehrer RI . Protegrins: leukocyte antimicrobial peptides that combine features of corticostatic defensins and tachyplesins . FEBS Letters . 327 . 2 . 231–6 . July 1993 . 8335113 . 10.1016/0014-5793(93)80175-T . free .
  2. Jang H, Ma B, Nussinov R . Conformational study of the protegrin-1 (PG-1) dimer interaction with lipid bilayers and its effect . BMC Structural Biology . 7 . 21 . April 2007 . 17407565 . 1858697 . 10.1186/1472-6807-7-21 . free .
  3. Binding modes of protegrin-1, a beta-strand antimicrobial peptide, in lipid bilayers . 10.1080/08927020701313737 . 2007 . Molecular Simulation . 799–807 . 9 . 10 . Kandasamy SK, Larson RG . 98222970 .
  4. Yasin B, Harwig SS, Lehrer RI, Wagar EA . Susceptibility of Chlamydia trachomatis to protegrins and defensins . Infection and Immunity . 64 . 3 . 709–13 . March 1996 . 10.1128/IAI.64.3.709-713.1996 . 8641770 . 173826 .
  5. Miyasaki KT, Iofel R, Lehrer RI . Sensitivity of periodontal pathogens to the bactericidal activity of synthetic protegrins, antibiotic peptides derived from porcine leukocytes . Journal of Dental Research . 76 . 8 . 1453–9 . August 1997 . 9240381 . 10.1177/00220345970760080701 . 46414982 .
  6. Zhao C, Ganz T, Lehrer RI . The structure of porcine protegrin genes . FEBS Letters . 368 . 2 . 197–202 . July 1995 . 7628604 . 10.1016/0014-5793(95)00633-K . 38194027 .
  7. Zhao C, Liu L, Lehrer RI . Identification of a new member of the protegrin family by cDNA cloning . FEBS Letters . 346 . 2–3 . 285–8 . June 1994 . 8013647 . 10.1016/0014-5793(94)00493-5 . free .
  8. Panchal RG, Smart ML, Bowser DN, Williams DA, Petrou S . Pore-forming proteins and their application in biotechnology . Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology . 3 . 2 . 99–115 . June 2002 . 12022262 . 10.2174/1389201023378418 .
  9. Sokolov Y, Mirzabekov T, Martin DW, Lehrer RI, Kagan BL . Membrane channel formation by antimicrobial protegrins . Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes . 1420 . 1–2 . 23–9 . August 1999 . 10446287 . 10.1016/S0005-2736(99)00086-3 .
  10. Drin G, Temsamani J . Translocation of protegrin I through phospholipid membranes: role of peptide folding . Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes . 1559 . 2 . 160–70 . February 2002 . 11853682 . 10.1016/S0005-2736(01)00447-3 .
  11. Fahrner RL, Dieckmann T, Harwig SS, Lehrer RI, Eisenberg D, Feigon J . Solution structure of protegrin-1, a broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide from porcine leukocytes . Chemistry & Biology . 3 . 7 . 543–50 . July 1996 . 8807886 . 10.1016/S1074-5521(96)90145-3 . free .
  12. Lai JR, Huck BR, Weisblum B, Gellman SH . Design of non-cysteine-containing antimicrobial beta-hairpins: structure-activity relationship studies with linear protegrin-1 analogues . Biochemistry . 41 . 42 . 12835–42 . October 2002 . 12379126 . 10.1021/bi026127d . 2009-04-27 . https://web.archive.org/web/20081205085730/http://www.chem.wisc.edu/%7egellman/pdf/113.pdf . 2008-12-05 . dead .
  13. Gidalevitz D, Ishitsuka Y, Muresan AS, Konovalov O, Waring AJ, Lehrer RI, Lee KY . Interaction of antimicrobial peptide protegrin with biomembranes . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 100 . 11 . 6302–7 . May 2003 . 12738879 . 164441 . 10.1073/pnas.0934731100 . 2003PNAS..100.6302G . free .
  14. Cho Y, Turner JS, Dinh NN, Lehrer RI . Activity of protegrins against yeast-phase Candida albicans . Infection and Immunity . 66 . 6 . 2486–93 . June 1998 . 10.1128/IAI.66.6.2486-2493.1998 . 9596706 . 108228 .
  15. Lehrer RI, Barton A, Daher KA, Harwig SS, Ganz T, Selsted ME . Interaction of human defensins with Escherichia coli. Mechanism of bactericidal activity . The Journal of Clinical Investigation . 84 . 2 . 553–61 . August 1989 . 2668334 . 548915 . 10.1172/JCI114198 .
  16. Qu XD, Harwig SS, Oren AM, Shafer WM, Lehrer RI . Susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to protegrins . Infection and Immunity . 64 . 4 . 1240–5 . April 1996 . 10.1128/IAI.64.4.1240-1245.1996 . 8606085 . 173910 . 2009-04-27 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110726150753/http://iai.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/4/1240 . 2011-07-26 . dead .
  17. Tamamura H, Murakami T, Horiuchi S, Sugihara K, Otaka A, Takada W, Ibuka T, Waki M, Yamamoto N, Fujii N . Synthesis of protegrin-related peptides and their antibacterial and anti-human immunodeficiency virus activity . Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin . 43 . 5 . 853–8 . May 1995 . 7553971 . 10.1248/cpb.43.853 . free .
  18. Gabay JE . Ubiquitous natural antibiotics . Science . 264 . 5157 . 373–4 . April 1994 . 8153623 . 10.1126/science.8153623 . 1994Sci...264..373G .
  19. Srinivas N, Jetter P, Ueberbacher BJ, Werneburg M, Zerbe K, Steinmann J, Van der Meijden B, Bernardini F, Lederer A, Dias RL, Misson PE, Henze H, Zumbrunn J, Gombert FO, Obrecht D, Hunziker P, Schauer S, Ziegler U, Käch A, Eberl L, Riedel K, DeMarco SJ, Robinson JA . Peptidomimetic antibiotics target outer-membrane biogenesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Science . 327 . 5968 . 1010–3 . February 2010 . 20167788 . 10.1126/science.1182749 . 2010Sci...327.1010S . 430525 .
  20. Zerbe K, Moehle K, Robinson JA . Protein Epitope Mimetics: From New Antibiotics to Supramolecular Synthetic Vaccines . Accounts of Chemical Research . 50 . 6 . 1323–1331 . June 2017 . 28570824 . 10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00129 .

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