A prison farm (also known as a penal farm) is a large correctional facility where penal labor convicts are forced to work legally or illegally on a farm (in the wide sense of a productive unit), usually for manual labor, largely in the open air, such as in agriculture, logging, quarrying, and mining. In the United States, such forced labor is made legal by the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution; however, some other parts of the world have made penal labor illegal. The concepts of prison farm and labor camp overlap, with the idea that the prisoners are forced to work. The historical equivalent on a very large scale was called a penal colony.
The agricultural goods produced by prison farms are generally used primarily to feed the prisoners themselves and other wards of the state (residents of orphanages, asylums, etc.), and secondarily, to be sold for whatever profit the state may be able to obtain.[1]
In addition to being forced to labor directly for the government on a prison farm or in a penal colony, inmates may be forced to do farm work for private enterprises by being farmed out through the practice of convict leasing to work on private agricultural lands or related industries (fishing, lumbering, etc.). The party purchasing their labor from the government generally does so at a steep discount from the cost of free labor.[2]
Louisiana State Penitentiary is the largest prison farm covering 18000acres; it is bordered on three sides by the Mississippi River.[3] Canada has six large prison farms, which were closed in 2010. Beginning in 2019, two of the farms were gradually reopened.[4]
Convict leasing was a system of penal labor that was primarily practiced in the Southern United States, widely involved the use of African-American men, and was prominently used after the American Civil War. In this system, southern states leased prisoners to large plantations and private mines or railways. This system led to the states earning a profit, while the prisoners earned no pay and faced dangerous working conditions.[5]
The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited the use of slavery and involuntary servitude but explicitly exempts those who have been convicted of a crime. In response to this, the southern state legislatures implemented "Black Codes", which were laws that explicitly applied to African-Americans and subjected them to criminal prosecution for minor offenses like breaking curfew, loitering, and not carrying proof of employment. These new laws led to more prisoners for the penal system that could all be leased by the state so that it can use their labor for profit. Widespread convict leasing ended by World War II, but the loopholes in the 13th Amendment still permit the use of prisoners to work without pay.[5]
Convicts may also be leased for non-agricultural work, either directly to state entities, or to private industry. For example, prisoners may make license plates under contract to the state department of motor vehicles, work in textile or other state-run factories, or may perform data processing for outside firms. Other types of work include food service or groundskeeping.[6] These laborers are typically considered to be a part of prison industries and not prison farms.
| State | Facility | Type of work | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | Farming [7] | ||
| Alabama | Cattle and Agricultural Operations, and Vegetable Gardens [8] | ||
| Alabama | Cattle and Farming [9] | ||
| Alaska | Point MacKenzie Correctional Farm | Hogs, Cattle, Turkeys, and Chickens, Produce Operations, and Hydroponics Program [10] | |
| Arkansas | Horse and Agricultural Operations [11] | ||
| Arkansas | Farming [12] | ||
| Arkansas | Agricultural Gardening Program [13] | ||
| Arkansas | North Central Unit | Garden and Forage Production [14] | |
| Arkansas | Ouachita River Unit | Livestock and Forage Production, Gravel Harvesting [15] | |
| Arkansas | Pine Bluff Unit | Horse operation [16] | |
| Arkansas | Agricultural Operations [17] | ||
| Arkansas | Horse Operations, Agricultural Operations [18] | ||
| California | Dairy/Milk Processing [19] | ||
| California | Farming [20] | ||
| California | Farming [21] | ||
| California | Farming [22] | ||
| Colorado | Buena Vista Correctional Complex | Fish Hatchery [23] | |
| Colorado | Four Mile Correctional Center | Dairy, Wild Horse Inmate Program [24] | |
| Colorado | Rifle Correctional Center | Timber [25] | |
| Colorado | Fish Hatchery, Farming, Vineyard, Goat and Water Buffalo Dairy, Mountain Sheep [26] | ||
| Florida | Apalachee Correctional Institution, West Unit / P.R.I.D.E. | Beef Cattle, Lumber, Agricultural [27] | |
| Florida | Charlotte Correctional Institution / P.R.I.D.E. | Citrus [28] | |
| Florida | Union Correctional Institution / P.R.I.D.E. | Beef Cattle, Lumber [29] | |
| Georgia | Cattle and Swine, Hay Farming [30] | ||
| Georgia | Farm Services [31] | ||
| Georgia | Montgomery State Prison | Poultry and Egg Production [32] | |
| Georgia | Rogers State Prison | Dairy, Beef Cattle, Swine, Farming [33] | |
| Georgia | Farming [34] | ||
| Hawaii | Halawa Correctional Facility / Hawaii Correctional Industries | Farming [35] | |
| Hawaii | Waiawa Correctional Facility | Farming [36] | |
| Louisiana | Louisiana State Penitentiary (Angola) | Farming | |
| Mississippi | Mississippi State Penitentiary(Parchman) / Mississippi Prison Agricultural Enterprises | Farming[37] [38] | |
| Mississippi | South Mississippi Correctional Institution / Mississippi Prison Agricultural Enterprises | Farming[39] | |
| North Carolina | Caledonia Correctional Institution (Caledonia State Prison Farm) | Farming and Cannery [40] [41] | |
| North Carolina | Dan River Prison Work Farm | Farming [42] | |
| North Carolina | Tyrrell Prison Work Farm | Farming [43] | |
| Texas | George Beto Unit (Beto Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[44] | |
| Texas | Dolph Briscoe Unit | Farming [45] | |
| Texas | James "Jay" H. Byrd Unit (Byrd Unit) | Hay Production [46] | |
| Texas | Beef Cattle, Farming, Swine Finishing [47] | ||
| Texas | William P. Clements Unit (Clements Unit) | Beef Processing [48] | |
| Texas | H. H. Coffield Unit (Coffield Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, Swine Farrowing etc.[49] | |
| Texas | Christina Melton Crain Unit (Crain Unit) | Farming, Swine Finishing[50] | |
| Texas | Price Daniel Unit | Farming [51] | |
| Texas | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Egg Operations, and Swine Finishing Operations [52] | ||
| Texas | Cow/Calf Operations, Egg Operations, Farming, and Swine Operations [53] | ||
| Texas | O.B. Ellis Unit (Ellis Unit) | Cotton Gin, Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, and Swine Operations [54] | |
| Texas | W. J. "Jim" Estelle Unit (Estelle Unit) | Cotton Gin, Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, and Swine Operations [55] | |
| Texas | Jim Ferguson Unit (Ferguson Unit) | Farming, Bull Management, and Swine Operations [56] | |
| Texas | Glen Ray Goodman Transfer Facility | Hay Production [57] | |
| Texas | Thomas Goree Unit (Goree Unit) | Horse Breeding [58] | |
| Texas | Joe F. Gurney Transfer Facility (Gurney Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[59] | |
| Texas | Farming, Swine Finishing [60] | ||
| Texas | William P. Hobby Unit (Hobby Unit) | Farming and Peach Orchard [61] | |
| Texas | Reverend C.A. Holliday Transfer Facility (Holliday Unit) | Farming, Egg Operations, Swine Operations, Horse Breeding Operations, and Veterinary Services [62] | |
| Texas | Alfred D. Hughes Unit (Hughes Unit) | Farming, Swine Finishing [63] | |
| Texas | Beauford H. Jester I Unit (Jester I Unit) | Swine Finishing, Mechanical Shop, and Combine Shed [64] | |
| Texas | Beauford H. Jester III Unit (Jester III Unit) | Swine Finishing, Mechanical Shop, and Combine Shed [65] | |
| Texas | Clyde M. Johnston Unit | Hay Production [66] | |
| Texas | O.L. Luther Unit | Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, Swine Operations, and Buffalo Ranch [67] | |
| Texas | Mark W. Michael Unit (Michael Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[68] | |
| Texas | Farming, Swine Finishing [69] | ||
| Texas | Dr. Lane Murray Unit (Murray Unit) | Farming, Swine Finishing [70] | |
| Texas | Nathaniel J. Neal Unit | Beef Processing [71] | |
| Texas | Wallace Pack Unit (Pack Unit) | Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, Swine Operations, and Buffalo Ranch [72] | |
| Texas | Allan B. Polunsky Unit (Polunsky unit) | Tree Farm [73] | |
| Texas | Louis C. Powledge Unit (Powledge Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[74] | |
| Texas | W. F. Ramsey Unit (Ramsey Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Cotton Gin, Farm Shop, Vegetable Cannery, Grain Storage, Swine Operations, and Alfalfa Dehydrator [75] | |
| Texas | Retrieve (later Wayne Scott) Unit (Scott Unit) | Cow/Calf Operations, Egg Operations, Swine Operations, Farming, Farm Shop, and Grain Storage [76] | |
| Texas | A.M. "Mac" Stringfellow Unit (Stringfellow Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Cotton Gin, Farm Shop, Vegetable Cannery, Grain Storage, Swine Operations, and Alfalfa Dehydrator [77] | |
| Texas | Barry B. Telford Unit (Telford Unit) | Cow/Calf Operations and Farming [78] | |
| Texas | C.T. Terrell Unit (Terrell Unit) | Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Cotton Gin, Farm Shop, Vegetable Cannery, Grain Storage, Swine Operations, and Alfalfa Dehydrator [79] | |
| Texas | Carol S. Vance Unit (Vance Unit) | Swine Finishing, Mechanical Shop, and Combine Shed [80] | |
| Texas | Daniel Webster Wallace Unit | Hay Production [81] | |
| Texas | John M. Wynne Unit (Wynne Unit) | Farming, Egg Operations, Swine Operations, Horse Breeding Operations, and Veterinary Services [82] |
In 2009, Canada shut down six of its major prison farms. Canada had used its prison farms as a way to generate revenue, as well as to give prisoners skills post-release. In 2009, the House of Commons in Canada announced that the skills that prison farms had been giving inmates were outdated, and that prison labor should focus on work related to more modern skills.
Although the Canadian prison farm system has been shut down since 2009, the debate as to whether or not the farms should reopen has continued. The group called Save our Prison Farms (SOPF) has been trying to revive the prison farm concept, since they did not want to pay for farm labor. When active, the prison farms highlighted many inherent inequalities within Canadian society. For example, the incarceration rate of the indigenous "First Nations" people of Canada was ten times greater than that of non-aboriginal Canadians.
in 2009, when the prison farm program in Canada was about to shut down, the Government of Canada gave three reasons to cut the program:
The revenue of the six prisons was CA$7.5 million, while the expenses were CA$11.5 million, with a net loss to the government of about four million dollars on a useless program. Since the Canadian Prison Farm Program was found to not be effective, along with its inherent inequalities, it seemed to make sense to just shut it down altogether.
The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which ended slavery, specifically carved out the concept of penal servitude (i.e., forced and unpaid labor as a punishment for a crime). This exemption only affected those who have been convicted of crimes, not those who were still awaiting trial.
Britain had a long history of penal servitude even before passage of the Penal Servitude Act of 1853, and routinely used convict labor to settle its conquests, either through penal colonies or by selling convicts to settlers to serve as slaves for a term of years as indentured servants.
This type of penal institution has mainly been implanted in rural regions of vast countries. For example, the following passage describes the prison system of the U.S. state of North Carolina in the early twentieth century:
"The state prison is at Raleigh, although most of the convicts are distributed upon farms owned and operated by the state. The lease system does not prevail, but the farming out of convict labor is permitted by the constitution; such labor is used chiefly for the building of railways, the convicts so employed being at all times cared for and guarded by state officials. A reformatory for white youth between the ages of seven and sixteen, under the name of the Stonewall Jackson Manual Training and Industrial School, was opened at Concord in 1909, and in March 1909 the Foulk Reformatory and Manual Training School for negro youth was provided for. Charitable and penal institutions are under the supervision of a Board of Public Charities, appointed by the governor for a period of six years, the terms of the different members expiring in different years. Private institutions for the care of the insane, idiots, feeble-minded, and inebriates may be established, but must be licensed and regulated by the state board and become legally a part of the system of public charities."
In 21st-century Illinois, several prisons continue to run farms to produce food for wards of the state, including the prisoners themselves. The 1911 Britannica also reported that the state of Rhode Island had a farm of 667acres in the southern part of Cranston City housing (and presumably taking labor from):
"the state prison, the Providence county jail, the state workhouse and the house of correction, the state almshouse, the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls, the last two being departments of the state reform school."[83]
There are prison farms in other countries. Canada had six prison farms, where up to 800 inmates did everything from tending pigs to milking cows, until they were closed in 2010 by the Conservative government. In 2015, the Liberal government began conducting feasibility studies to determine if the program can be restarted.[84] In 2018, the Liberal government announced plans to reopen two of the prison farms previously closed by the end of 2019.
Films and television shows featuring prison farms and forced prison labor: