List of peasant revolts explained

This is a chronological list of revolts organized by peasants.

Background

The history of peasant wars spans over two thousand years. A variety of factors fueled the emergence of the peasant revolt phenomenon, including:[1]

Later peasant revolts such as the Telangana Rebellion were also influenced by agrarian socialist ideologies such as Maoism.[2]

The majority of peasant rebellions ended prematurely and were unsuccessful. Peasants suffered from limited funding and lacked the training and organisational capabilities of professional armies.[3]

Chronological list

The list gives the name, the date, the peasant allies and enemies, and the result of these conflicts following this legend:

width=80Datewidth=150ConflictStatePeasantsResultclass=unsortableImageclass=unsortableRef.
209–206 BCAnti-Qin revolts (including Dazexiang Uprising)Qin dynastyPeasants under several rebel leaders, including Chen Sheng, Wu Guang, Xiang Yu, and Liu BangQin dissolution[4]
205–186 BCGreat revolt of the Egyptians Ptolemaic KingdomNative Egyptian peasants and soldiers under secessionist Pharaohs Hugronaphor and AnkhmakisSuppression of the rebellion[5]
17–25LülinXin dynastyLülin rebelsCollapse of Xin dynasty; ascendancy of rebel leader Liu Xiu after infighting among Lülin forces
17–27Red EyebrowsXin dynastyRed Eyebrows rebelsGoal of the rebellion partially achieved, but eventual defeat of the movement by Liu Xiu
172–173Bucolic War Roman EmpireEgyptian peasants under IsidorusSuppression of the rebellion[6]
184–205Yellow Turban RebellionHan dynastyYellow Turban rebelsSuppression of the rebellion, though Han dynasty is severely weakened[7]
185–205Heishan bandit movementHan dynasty
Gongsun Zan's forces
Suppression of the rebellion, though Han dynasty is severely weakened
3rd–5th centuryBagaudae Roman EmpireBagaudae
Suebi
Gain control of some territory; end with the general collapse of the Roman Empire
4th–late 5th centuryCircumcellions Roman Empire (until 435)
Catholic Church (until 435)
Vandal Kingdom (since 435)
African landlords
Berber and Roman peasants
Donatist authorities
Rebellious Roman military under Gildo (in 398)
End of Roman Catholic rule in Africa, but suppression of the rebellion by Vandals and Arian authorities[8]
611–619Anti-Sui rebellionsSui dynastyPeasants under several rebel leaders
Defected military forces under several rebel generals, officials and nobles
Collapse of Sui dynasty; ascendancy of rebel leader Li Yuan after infighting among rebel forces
841–843Stellinga UprisingSaxon nobility
Frankish military under Louis the German
StellingaSuppression of the rebellion
859–860Rebellion of Ch'iu FuTang dynastyChinese peasants and bandits under Ch'iu FuSuppression of the rebellion, though Tang dynasty is severely weakened[9]
874–878Rebellion of Wang XianzhiTang dynastyChinese peasants and bandits under Wang Xianzhi and Shang JunzhangSuppression of the rebellion, though Tang dynasty is severely weakened[10]
875–884Tang dynastyChinese peasants and bandits under Huang ChaoSuppression of the rebellion, though Tang dynasty is severely weakened[11]
928–932Basil the Copper Hand Rebellions Byzantine EmpirePeasants under Basil the Copper HandSuppression of the rebellion
993–995Da Shu rebellion in SichuanSong dynastyPeasants under Wang Xiaobo and Li ShunSuppression of the rebellion[12]
996Peasants' revolt in NormandyNormandy under Rodulf of Ivry and Richard II, Duke of NormandyNorman peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[13]
1277–1280Uprising of Ivaylo
Golden Horde
Peasants under IvayloMurder of Ivaylo[14]
1323–1328Peasant revolt in Flanders Kingdom of FranceFlemish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1343–1345St. George's Night Uprising
Kingdom of Denmark
Estonian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[15]
1351–1368Red Turban Rebellion
Goryeo
Red Turban Armies of White Lotus members, Manichaeans and Chinese peasantsFall of Yuan dynasty and retreat of the Mongols into Mongolia as the Northern Yuan dynasty; ascendancy of rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang after infighting among rebel forces
1358Jacquerie Kingdom of FranceFrench peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1381Peasants' Revolt Kingdom of EnglandEnglish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion, though Plantagenet dynasty is weakened
1382Harelle Kingdom of FranceFrench peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[16]
1428 Ashikaga shogunateJapanese peasantsPeasant debts cancelled.
1437Transylvanian peasant revolt Kingdom of HungaryTransylvanian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1438Hallvard Graatops RevoltNorwegian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1441 Ashikaga shogunateDo-ikki (leagues) of peasants and jizamuraiPeasant debts cancelled, Ashikaga shogunate is severely weakened.[17]
1441Funen and Jutland Peasant rebellionsDanish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1450Jack Cade's rebellion Kingdom of EnglandEnglish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion, though Lancaster dynasty is weakened and eventually overthrown during the Wars of the Roses.[18]
1450–1451John and William Merfold's Uprising Kingdom of EnglandEnglish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[19]
1453–1454Morea revolt of 1453–54
Ottoman Empire
Latin loyalists under John Asen Zaccaria
Suppression of the rebellion[20]
1462–1472, 1485–1486War of the Remences Catalan constitutionalists and nobility (1462–1472)
Crown of Aragon (1485–1486)
Catalan peasants
Royalists under John II of Aragon (1462–1472)
Goal of the rebellion largely achieved, Sentència de Guadalupe signed[21]
1467–1469Galician Irmandiños RevoltKingdom of Galicia (Crown of Castile)Galician peasants, led by Galician burgeoisie and part of the local lower nobilitySuppression of the rebellion by feudal armies[22]
May 1476Niklashausen Peasant Revolt Holy Roman EmpireGerman peasants led by Hans Böhm, who had a vision of the Virgin Mary, against the nobility and clergy of the Holy Roman Empire.Böhm executed and pilgrimages to Niklashausen ceased[23]
1478Carinthian Peasant Revolt Holy Roman EmpireCarinthian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[24]
1482–1511Yamashiro ikki uprisings Ashikaga shogunate
Various samurai clans
Yamashiro ikki and later, lesser ikki
Various samurai clans
Most ikki submit to the shogunate in 1493, though they achieved many of their aims and continued to retain autonomy until the gradual end of the movement[25]
1487–1488Togashi clanIkkō-ikki
Motoori clan
Yamagawa clan
Decisive victory for the Ikkō-ikki.
1488–1582Ikkō-ikki UprisingsSeveral major samurai clans (including Oda clan and Tokugawa clan)
Nichiren sect
Jōdo-shū sōhei
Ikkō-shū peasant and ji-samurai leagues
Asakura clan
Destruction of most militant Ikkō-shū leagues; Jōdo Shinshū sect and remaining Ikkō-ikki submit to Toyotomi Hideyoshi[26]
1490-1492 Mukha rebellion Kingdom of PolandOrthodox ruthenian peasantsOrthodox moldavian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1493–1517Bundschuh movement Holy Roman EmpireGerman PeasantsAll rebellions suppressed
1498–1878Opryshky movement
Holy Roman Empire
Ruthenian (Ukrainian) peasantsHutsul peasantsSuppression of the movement
1511Friulian Revolt Republic of VeniceFriulian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1514Poor Conrad Rebellion Duchy of WürttembergWürttemberg peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[27]
1514György Dózsa Rebellion Kingdom of HungaryHungarian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[28]
1515Slovene Peasant Revolt of 1515 Holy Roman EmpireSlovene peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[29]
1515–1523Frisian peasant rebellion Habsburg Netherlands Arumer Zwarte Hoop
Charles II, Duke of Guelders
Suppression of the rebellion
1516–1521Trần Cảo RebellionLê dynastyVietnamese peasants under Trần Cảo and Trần CungSuppression of the rebellion, though Lê dynasty is severely weakened[30]
1519–1659Celali rebellions Ottoman CaliphateTurkmen peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[31]
1524–1525German Peasants' War Swabian LeagueGerman peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1524–1533Dalecarlian RebellionsDalarna peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1525Palatine Peasants' War Electoral PalatinatePalatine peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1534Skipper Clement's Rebellion
Kingdom of Denmark
Danish Peasants under Skipper Clement
Suppression of the rebellion
1540Peasant's Rebellion in Telemark Denmark–NorwayNorwegian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1542–1543Dacke WarSmåland peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[32]
1549Kett's Rebellion Kingdom of EnglandEnglish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1573Croatian–Slovene Peasant Revolt Holy Roman EmpireKingdom of CroatiaSlovene peasants
Croatian peasants
Suppression of the rebellion[33]
1594–1637Croquant rebellions Kingdom of FranceFrench peasantsSuppression of all rebellions
1596–1597Cudgel War SwedenFinnish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[34]
1606–1607Bolotnikov Rebellion Tsardom of RussiaRussian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1626–1636Peasants' War in Upper Austria Electorate of BavariaAustrian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[35]
1630–1645Rebellion of Li ZichengMing dynasty (1630–1644)
Qing Dynasty (1644–1645)
Peasants under Li Zicheng, Gao Guiying and other generals of the Shun dynastyCollapse of Ming dynasty, but suppression of the rebellion by Qing dynasty
1630–1647Rebellion of Zhang XianzhongMing dynasty (1630–1644)
Qing Dynasty (1644–1647)
Peasants and bandits under Zhang XianzhongCollapse of Ming dynasty, but suppression of the rebellion by Qing dynasty[36]
1635Second Slovene peasants' revoltPeasants under a scattered leadership of various leadersSuppression of the rebellion
1637–1638Shimabara Rebellion
Dutch Empire
Christian peasants and rōninSuppression of the rebellion[37]
1639Revolt of the va-nu-pieds Kingdom of FranceNormandy peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1640Corpus de Sang Principality of CataloniaCatalan harvestersRevolt successful. Start of the Reapers' War; eventual defeat of Catalonia
1651Kostka-Napierski Uprising Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthPolish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[38]
1652Guo Huaiyi Rebellion
Aboriginal Taiwanese
Chinese peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1653Swiss peasant war of 1653 Republic of the SwissSwiss peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[39]
1664-1665Varenytsia Uprising Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthUkrainian peasantsKalnyk Cossack regiment under Vasyl Varenytsia and Ivan SulymkaZaporozhian Cossacks under Ivan SirkoSuppression of the rebellion[40]
1667–1671Stepan Razin Rebellion Tsardom of RussiaRussian peasants
Don Cossacks
Suppression of the rebellion[41]
1669–1670Peasant Rebellion in Podhale Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthPolish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[42]
1704Kuridža's RebellionOrthodox peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1705–1706Bavarian People's UprisingBavarian peasants Suppression of the rebellion
1707–1708Bulavin Rebellion Tsardom of RussiaRussian peasants
Don Cossacks
Suppression of the rebellion
1713Slovene peasant revolt in TolminPeasants under a scattered leadership of various leaders, including Ivan MiklavčičSuppression of the rebellion
1730–1769Peasant revolts for the restoration of the Lê dynasty and land reforms
Nguyễn lords
Vietnamese peasants
Lê dynasty
Suppression of the rebellions and eventual collapse of Lê dynasty, but start of Tây Sơn Revolt
1743Dalecarlian rebellion SwedenSwedish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1765Strilekrigen Denmark–NorwayNorwegian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1767-1770Klishchyn UprisingUkrainian peasantsZhovnynsk CossacksSuppression of the rebellion[43]
1768–1769Koliivshchyna
Russian Empire
Haidamaka movementOrthodox ruthenian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1769–1788Tây Sơn RevoltNguyễn lords (until 1776)
Nguyễn Ánh's forces (since 1776)
Trịnh lords (until 1786)
Siam (in 1785)
Lê dynasty (1786–1788)
Qing Dynasty (1787–1788)
Tây Sơn dynastyGoal of the rebellion achieved; reunification of Vietnam and introduction of land reforms under Tây Sơn dynasty
1773–1775Pugachev's RebellionRussian peasants
Bashkirs
Suppression of the rebellion[44]
1780–1783Rebellion of Túpac Amaru IIQuechua and Aymara peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[45]
1784Revolt of Horea, Cloșca and CrișanRomanian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[46]
1786–1787Lofthusreisingen Denmark–NorwayNorwegian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1786–1787Shays' Rebellion United StatesAmerican farmersSuppression of the rebellion, constitutional reform
1789-1793Turbaii Uprising former Myrhorod CossacksUkrainian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion, self government abolished[47]
1790Saxon Peasants' Revolt SaxonySaxon peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[48]
1791–1794Whisky Rebellion United StatesAmerican farmersSuppression of the rebellion, whiskey tax is repealed shortly after
1793–1796War in the Vendée French Republic
Émigrés
Suppression of the rebellion
1793–1804Chouannerie French Republic
Émigrés
Suppression of the rebellion
1794Kościuszko Uprising
Polish loyalists
Polish nationalist nobility
Polish peasants
Polish Jacobins
Suppression of the rebellion[49]
1794–1804White Lotus Rebellion Qing DynastyWhite Lotus rebelsSuppression of the rebellion
1798Peasants' War French Republic Low countries peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[50]
1800–1802Lærdal Rebellion Denmark–NorwayNorwegian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[51]
1803Cherkasy Uprising of 1803Ukrainian peasantsSurpression of the rebellion[52]
1807–1820Jean-Baptiste Perrier's rebellion Republic of HaitiHaitian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1809Tyrolean Rebellion
Suppression of the rebellion
1809Gottscheer Rebellion First French Empire
Slovene peasants
Suppression of the rebellion
1811Klågerup riots SwedenSwedish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1813-1835Karmaliuk uprisingsUkrainian peasantsPolish peasantsJewish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[53]
1819Chuguev uprisingmilitary settlers of the Chuguev RegimentUkrainian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[54]
1826–1854Peasant uprisings during the reign of Nicholas I of RussiaRussian peasantsAbout 556 small-scale rural uprisings took place during Nicholas' reign. All were suppressed, but contributed to the Russian Emperor's reluctance to end the serfdom in Russia.
1826Ohramievchi uprisingUkrainian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[55]
1832–1835Cabanada Empire of BrazilRestorationist peasantsRebellion subdued after the premature death of former Emperor Pedro I
1834–1835Syrian Peasant Revolt (1834–35) Egypt EyaletArab peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[56]
1835–1840Cabanagem Empire of Brazil Indigenous, mestizo and black peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1838–1841Balaiada Empire of BrazilPeasants and African slavesSuppression of the rebellion
1839–1845Anti-Rent War
Upstate tenant farmersinitially suppressed by the state militia, rebel anti-rent leaders arrested though they were either pardoned or not sentenced, anti-renters continued to rebel decades after the trials, the Antirenter party was formed and tenant rights were granted.
1844Piquet uprising Republic of HaitiPiquets (Haitian peasants) under AcaauPiquet movement leaders integrated into government, but goals not achieved
1846Acaau's second rebellion Republic of HaitiHaitian peasants under AcaauSuppression of the rebellion
1846Galician Peasant Uprising of 1846Galician peasantsDe facto suppression of the rebellion, although it was both sparked and extinguished by the Austrian authorities and eventually led to abolition of serfdom in Galicia and Lodomeria two years later.[57]
1847-1915Caste War of Yucatán Mexico
Guatemala
Maya peasants of the Yucatán PeninsulaTemporary establishment of Chan Santa Cruz state; eventually suppression of the rebellion[58]
1850–1864Taiping RebellionTaiping Heavenly KingdomSuppression of the rebellion
1855Kiev Cossacks insurrectionKyiv "Cossacks"Ukrainian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[59]
1856"To Tavria for freedom" movementUkrainian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1851–1868Nian RebellionNian militiasSuppression of the rebellion
1858Mahtra WarEstonian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[60]
1861Bezdna unrestRussian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1862Great Peasant Uprising of 1862 Joseon DynastyKorean peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1884Chichibu IncidentJapanese peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1888Peasant Revolt in BantenBantenese peasants and ulamasSuppression of the rebellion[61]
1892Jerez uprisingRegional fieldworkersSuppression of the rebellion[62]
1894–1895Donghak Peasant Revolution
Joseon Dynasty
Korean peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1896–1897War of Canudos First Brazilian RepublicCanudos inhabitantsSuppression of the rebellion
1899–1900Peasant unrest in Bulgaria Principality of BulgariaBulgarian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1905-1906Sorochyntsi revoltUkrainian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[63]
1905–1908Maji Maji Rebellion German East AfricaMatumbi people, Ngoni people, and other TanganyikansSuppression of the rebellion[64]
19071907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt Kingdom of RomaniaRomanian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1910Kileler uprising Kingdom of GreeceFarmers of ThessalyInitial suppression of the rebellion, followed by the arrested declared innocent and some minor measures in favor of the peasants being taken the next year; Actual requests of the peasants began being fulfilled in 1923.[65]
1911Peasant rebellion in eastern Henan Qing dynastyYellow Way SocietySuppression of the rebellion
1912-1916Contestado War First Brazilian Republic Farmers and lumberjacksSuppression of the rebellion
1913Peasant revolt in Northern Shaanxi Republic of ChinaChinese poppy farmers and bandits under a sect leaderSpread of the revolt; poppy plant eradication campaign stopped[66]
1914Peasant Revolt in Albania
Catholic Militia
Muslim peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1916UrkunKyrgyz and Kazakh peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[67]
1917–1921Makhnovshchina South Russia
Ukrainian peasants and workersSuppression of the rebellion
1918Livny UprisingRussian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1918Arsk UprisingTatar peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1918Sheksna uprisingRussian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1918Anti-Hetman uprising Ukrainian stateUkrainian peasantsUkrainian directorate supporters

Green Armies

Left Socialist-Revolutionaries

Abdication of Hetman SkoropadskyjRestoration of the Ukrainian People's RepublicPreliminary peace agreement between Ukraine and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic[68]
1919Chapan rebellionRussian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1919Khotyn uprising Kingdom of RomaniaUkrainian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1919–1922Rebellion of "Chu the Ninth" (Ming pretender) Republic of ChinaYellow Way SocietySuppression of the rebellion
1920Pitchfork uprising"Black Eagle" peasant rebelsSuppression of the rebellion
1920Croatian Peasant RebellionCroatian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1920–1922Tambov RebellionRussian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1920–1926Spirit Soldier rebellions of eastern Sichuan and western Hubei Republic of ChinaSpirit Soldier rebels, allied warlord forcesStalemate: Large Spirit Soldier armies are destroyed, but movement persists
1921Peasant Rebellion of SorokinoRussian peasants and White Army veteransSuppression of the rebellion
1921Malabar rebellionIndian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[69]
1924Rebellion of "Wang the Sixth" (Ming pretender) Republic of ChinaWang's followersSuppression of the rebellion
1924Tatarbunary uprising Kingdom of RomaniaUkrainian peasantsUkrainian bolsheviksSuppression of the rebellion
1925Rebellion of Chu Hung-teng (Ming pretender) Republic of ChinaHeavenly Gate SocietySuppression of the rebellion
1927Autumn Harvest Uprising Republic of China Hunan SovietSuppression of the rebellion
1928–1929Red Spears' uprising in Shandong Republic of ChinaRed Spear SocietySuppression of the rebellion
1928-1940Revolts against soviet collectivisation Soviet UnionSoviet peasantsSuppression of the revolts
1932Salvadoran peasant massacreSalvadoran peasantsSuppression of the rebellion
1932Lesko uprisingPolish peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[70]
1932Peasant uprising against poppy-tax collection in Su County
Kuomintang members and allied gentry
Chinese poppy farmers and gentry under Wang Xiaobai and Ma FengshanSuppression of the rebellion[71]
1932Peasant uprising against poppy-tax collection in Lingbi County Republic of ChinaChinese poppy farmers under Tian XueminGoal of the rebellion achieved[72]
1936Miyun District rebellion East Hebei Autonomous Council
Empire of Japan
Yellow Sand SocietySuppression of the rebellion
1944Peasant revolt in Beichuan County Republic of ChinaChinese poppy farmers of Xiaoyuan and HouyuanGoal of the rebellion achieved[73]
1944 Empire of JapanIndramayu PeasantsSuppression of the rebellion[74]
1946–1951Tebhaga movementBengal landlordsBengal peasants (All India Kisan Sabha)
Communist Party of India
Goal of the rebellion partially achieved[75]
1946–1951Telangana Rebellion
Hyderabad landlords
Hyderabad State
Hyderabad peasants (Andhra Mahasabha)
Communist Party of India
Goal of the rebellion achieved[76]
1947–1954Hukbalahap RebellionFilipino peasants (Hukbalahap)Suppression of the rebellion[77]
1949Nankar Rebellion Pakistan
Various Bengali Zamindars
Communist Party and Peasants AssociationGoal of the rebellion achieved[78]
1950Cazin rebellionYugoslavian peasantsSuppression of the rebellion[79]
1952–1960Mau Mau Uprising Kenya ColonyKikuyu farmhandersSuppression of the rebellion
1958Rebellion at Fuzhou, JiangxiDacheng sectsSuppression of the rebellion
1958Rebellion at YongjingRural rebelsSuppression of the rebellion
1959–1965Escambray RebellionCuban peasants
Batista loyalists
United States
Suppression of the rebellion
1959Peasant rebellion at Sizhuang, Henan"Regiment of Spirit Soldiers"Suppression of the rebellion
1960Rebellion at Yongnian CountyNew Star SocietySuppression of the rebellion
1968–1969AgbekoyaYoruba peasantsGoal of the rebellion achieved
1969Rebellion at ChangchunNine Palaces WaySuppression of the rebellion
1969Rebellion at Shuangyang CountyMount Wutai sectSuppression of the rebellion
1970s1970s peasant revolts in ThailandThai peasantsPeasant leaders assassinated
1975–1991Uprisings in Tigray and Eritrea; part of the Ethiopian Civil War EthiopiaTigrayan and Eritrean peasantsDerg overthrown; Eritrean independence[80]
1994Zapatista uprisingMexican indigenous peasantsCeasefire

See also

Sources

Notes and References

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  4. Web site: Chen Sheng and Wu Guang's Revolt Against Qin. 22 October 2014.
  5. Web site: The great revolt of the Egyptians (205–186 BC). 8 June 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233131/http://english.cri.cn/1702/2005-4-29/14@232828.htm. 3 March 2016. dead. dmy-all.
  6. Dio Cassius, Epitome 72
  7. Web site: The Yellow Turban Uprising. Ulrich Theobald. 28 June 2011. 22 October 2014.
  8. Baldwin, pp. 3–11.
  9. Somers, pp. 688–692.
  10. Somers, pp. 727–736.
  11. Somers, pp. 727–762.
  12. Web site: Die Nördliche Song-Dynastie. 17 June 2015. 18 September 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180918054303/http://german.cri.cn/other/chinageschichte/72.htm. dead.
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  15. Vahtre, pp. 79–90.
  16. Sumption, p. 444.
  17. Hall, Toyoda; pp. 28–30.
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  19. Hicks, pp. 33–55.
  20. Cheetham, p. 218.
  21. Rotger, 2011, pp. 26–33.
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  37. Murray, Japan, pp. 258–262.
  38. Majda, pp. 17–30.
  39. Suter, pp. 146–155.
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  50. Kreins, pp. 66–70
  51. Daae, pp. 88–90
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