Pogrom Explained

Above:Pogrom
Label1:Target
Data1:Predominantly Jews
Additionally other ethnic groups

A pogrom is a violent riot incited with the aim of massacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews. The term entered the English language from Russian to describe 19th- and 20th-century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement). Retrospectively, similar attacks against Jews which occurred in other times and places also became known as pogroms. Sometimes the word is used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incident, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres.[1]

Significant pogroms in the Russian Empire included the Odessa pogroms, Warsaw pogrom (1881), Kishinev pogrom (1903), Kiev pogrom (1905), and Białystok pogrom (1906). After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, several pogroms occurred amidst the power struggles in Eastern Europe, including the Lwów pogrom (1918) and Kiev pogroms (1919).The most significant pogrom which occurred in Nazi Germany was the 1938 Kristallnacht. At least 91 Jews were killed, a further thirty thousand arrested and subsequently incarcerated in concentration camps, a thousand synagogues burned, and over seven thousand Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged. Notorious pogroms of World War II included the 1941 Farhud in Iraq, the July 1941 Iași pogrom in Romaniain which over 13,200 Jews were killedas well as the Jedwabne pogrom in German-occupied Poland. Post-World War II pogroms included the 1945 Tripoli pogrom, the 1946 Kielce pogrom, the 1947 Aleppo pogrom, and the 1955 Istanbul pogrom.

This type of violence has also occurred to other ethnic and religious minorities. Examples include the 1984 Sikh massacre in which 3,000 Sikhs were killed[2] and the 2002 Gujurat pogrom against Indian Muslims.[3]

In 2008, two attacks in the Occupied West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.[4] The Huwara pogrom was a common name for the 2023 Israeli settler attack on the Palestinian town of Huwara in February 2023. In 2023, a Wall Street Journal editorial referred to the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel as a pogrom.[5]

The word "pogrom"

See main article: Definitions of pogrom.

Etymology

First recorded in English in 1882, the Russian word Russian: pogróm (pronounced as /ru/) is derived from the common prefix Russian: po- and the verb Russian: gromít' (pronounced as /ru/) meaning 'to destroy, wreak havoc, demolish violently'. The noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed from Yiddish (where the word takes the form Yiddish: פאָגראָם). Its modern widespread circulation began with the antisemitic violence in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883.

Usage of the word

According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "the term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, [and] the first extensive pogroms followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881". The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 states that pogroms "were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire." However, the term is widely used to refer to many events which occurred prior to the Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. Historian of Russian Jewry John Klier writes in Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882: "By the twentieth century, the word 'pogrom' had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews." Abramson points out that "in mainstream usage the word has come to imply an act of antisemitism", since while "Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon ... historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence."

The term is also used in reference to attacks on non-Jewish ethnic minorities, and accordingly, some scholars do not include antisemitism as the defining characteristic of pogroms. Reviewing the word's uses in scholarly literature, historian Werner Bergmann proposes that a pogrom should be "defined as a unilateral, nongovernmental form of collective violence that is initiated by the majority population against a largely defenseless minority ethnic group, and occurring when the majority expect the state to provide them [sic] with no assistance in overcoming a (perceived) threat from the minority". However, Bergmann adds that in Western usage, the word's "anti-Semitic overtones" have been retained. Historian David Engel supports this view, writing that while "there can be no logically or empirically compelling grounds for declaring that some particular episode does or does not merit the label [pogrom]," the majority of the incidents which are "habitually" described as pogroms took place in societies that were significantly divided by ethnicity and/or religion where the violence was committed by members of the higher-ranking group against members of a stereotyped lower-ranking group with which they expressed some complaint, and where the members of the higher-ranking group justified their acts of violence by claiming that the law of the land would not be used to prevent the alleged complaint.

There is no universally accepted set of characteristics which define the term pogrom. Klier writes that "when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that 'pogroms' were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features." Use of the term pogrom to refer to events in 1918–19 in Polish cities (including the Kielce pogrom, the Pinsk massacre and the Lwów pogrom) was specifically avoided in the 1919 Morgenthau Report; the word "excesses" was employed instead because the authors argued that the use of the term "pogrom" required a situation to be antisemitic rather than political in nature, which meant that it was inapplicable to the conditions which exist in a war zone. Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991 Crown Heights riot caused public controversy. In 2008, two separate attacks in the West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were characterized as pogroms by then Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert.[4] [6]

Werner Bergmann suggests that all such incidents have a particularly unifying characteristic: "By the collective attribution of a threat, the pogrom differs from other forms of violence, such as lynchings, which are directed at individual members of a minority group, while the imbalance of power in favor of the rioters distinguishes pogroms from other forms of riots (food riots, race riots or 'communal riots' between evenly matched groups); and again, the low level of organization separates them from vigilantism, terrorism, massacre and genocide".

History of anti-Jewish pogroms

The first recorded anti-Jewish riots took place in Alexandria in the year 38 CE, followed by the more known riot of 66 CE. Other notable events took place in Europe during the Middle Ages. Jewish communities were targeted in 1189 and 1190 in England and throughout Europe during the Crusades and the Black Death of 1348–1350, including in Toulon, Erfurt, Basel, Aragon, Flanders[7] [8] and Strasbourg.[9] Some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed during this period,[10] extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. On Holy Saturday of 1389, a pogrom began in Prague that led to the burning of the Jewish quarter, the killing of many Jews, and the suicide of many Jews trapped in the main synagogue; the number of dead was estimated at 400–500 men, women and children.[11] Attacks against Jews also took place in Barcelona and other Spanish cities during the massacre of 1391.

The brutal murders of Jews and Poles occurred during the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine.[12] Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytsky's Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more.

The outbreak of violence against Jews (Hep-Hep riots) occurred at the beginning of the 19th century in reaction to Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation.[13]

Pogroms in the Russian Empire

The Russian Empire, which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories in the Russian Partition that contained large Jewish populations, during the military partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795.[14] In conquered territories, a new political entity called the Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jews from the former Commonwealth were allowed to reside only within the Pale, including families expelled by royal decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large Russian cities.[15] The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia; there were four more such pogroms in Odessa before the end of the century.[16] Following the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 by Narodnaya Volya, anti-Jewish events turned into a wave of over 200 pogroms by their modern definition, which lasted for several years.[17] Jewish self-governing Kehillah were abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844.[18]

There is some disagreement about the level of planning from the Tsarist authorities and the motives for the attacks.[19]

The first in 20th-century Russia was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 49 Jews were killed, hundreds wounded, 700 homes destroyed and 600 businesses pillaged.[20] In the same year, pogroms took place in Gomel (Belarus), Smela, Feodosiya and Melitopol (Ukraine). Extreme savagery was typified by mutilations of the wounded. They were followed by the Zhitomir pogrom (with 29 killed),[21] and the Kiev pogrom of October 1905 resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. In three years between 1903 and 1906, about 660 pogroms were recorded in Ukraine and Bessarabia; half a dozen more in Belorussia, carried out with the Russian government's complicity, but no anti-Jewish pogroms were recorded in Poland.[22] At about that time, the Jewish Labor Bund began organizing armed self-defense units ready to shoot back, and the pogroms subsided for a number of years.[23] According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920 there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine (see: Southwestern Krai parts of the Pale) which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless.[24] This violence across Eastern Europe prompted a wave of Jewish migration westward that totaled about 2.5 million people.[25]

Eastern Europe after World War I

Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War in the aftermath of World War I. Professor Zvi Gitelman (A Century of Ambivalence) estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine, thus amounting to the greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648.[26]

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in his book Two Hundred Years Together provided additional statistics from research conducted by Nahum Gergel (1887–1931). Gergel counted 1,236 incidents of anti-Jewish violence and estimated that 887 mass pogroms occurred, the remainder being classified as "excesses" not assuming mass proportions. The Kiev pogroms of 1919, according to Gitelman, were the first of a subsequent wave of pogroms in which between 30,000 and 70,000 Jews were massacred across Ukraine; although more recent assessments put the Jewish death toll at more than 100,000.[27] [28] Of all the pogroms accounted for in Gergel's research:

Gergel's overall figures, which are generally considered conservative, are based on the testimony of witnesses and newspaper reports collected by the Mizrakh-Yidish Historiche Arkhiv which was first based in Kiev, then Berlin and later New York. The English version of Gergel's article was published in 1951 in the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science titled "The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918–1921".[35]

On 8 August 1919, during the Polish–Soviet War, Polish troops took over Minsk in Operation Minsk. They killed 31 Jews suspected of supporting the Bolshevist movement, beat and attacked many more, looted 377 Jewish-owned shops (aided by the local civilians) and ransacked many private homes.[36] [37] The "Morgenthau's report of October 1919 stated that there is no question that some of the Jewish leaders exaggerated these evils."[38] [39] According to Elissa Bemporad, the "violence endured by the Jewish population under the Poles encouraged popular support for the Red Army, as Jewish public opinion welcomed the establishment of the Belorussian SSR."[40]

After the First World War, during the localized armed conflicts of independence, 72 Jews were killed and 443 injured in the 1918 Lwów pogrom.[41] [42] [43] [44] [45] The following year, pogroms were reported by the New York Tribune in several cities in the newly established Second Polish Republic.

Pogroms in Europe and the Americas before World War II

Argentina 1919

In 1919, a pogrom occurred in Argentina, during the Tragic Week. It had an added element, as it was called to attack Jews and Catalans indiscriminately. The reasons are not clear, especially considering that, in the case of Buenos Aires, the Catalan colony, established mainly in the neighborhood of Montserrat, came from the foundation of the city, but could have been the result of the influence of Spanish nationalism, which at the time described Catalans as a Semitic ethnicity.[46]

Britain and Ireland

In the early 20th century, pogroms broke out elsewhere in the world as well. In 1904 in Ireland, the Limerick boycott caused several Jewish families to leave the town. During the 1911 Tredegar riot in Wales, Jewish homes and businesses were looted and burned over a period of a week, before the British Army was called in by the then-Home Secretary Winston Churchill, who described the riot as a "pogrom".

In the north of Ireland during the early 1920s, violent riots which were aimed at the expulsion of a religious group took place. In 1920, Lisburn and Belfast saw violence related to the Irish War of Independence and partition of Ireland. On 21 July 1920 in Belfast, Protestant Loyalists marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs.[47] The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days.[48] These sectarian actions are often referred to as the Belfast Pogrom. In Lisburn, County Antrim, on 23–25 August 1920 Protestant loyalist crowds looted and burned practically every Catholic business in the town and attacked Catholic homes. About 1,000 people, a third of the town's Catholics, fled Lisburn.[49] By the end of the first six months of 1922, hundreds of people had been killed in sectarian violence in newly formed Northern Ireland. On a per capita basis, four Roman Catholics were killed for every Protestant.[50]

In the worst incident of anti-Jewish violence in Britain during the interwar period, the "Pogrom of Mile End", that occurred in 1936, 200 Blackshirt youths ran amok in Stepney in the East End of London, smashing the windows of Jewish shops and homes and throwing an elderly man and young girl through a window. Though less serious, attacks on Jews were also reported in Manchester and Leeds in the north of England.[51]

Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe

See main article: The Holocaust.

The first pogrom in Nazi Germany was the Kristallnacht, often called Pogromnacht, in which at least 91 Jews were killed, a further 30,000 arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps, over 1,000 synagogues burned, and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.

During World War II, Nazi German death squads encouraged local populations in German-occupied Europe to commit pogroms against Jews. Brand new battalions of Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz (trained by SD agents) were mobilized from among the German minorities.[52] [53]

A large number of pogroms occurred during the Holocaust at the hands of non-Germans.[54] Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was the Iași pogrom in Romania, perpetrated by Ion Antonescu, in which as many as 13,266 Jews were killed by Romanian citizens, police and military officials.

On 1–2 June 1941, in the two-day Farhud pogrom in Iraq, perpetrated by Rashid Ali, Yunis al-Sabawi, and the al-Futuwa youth, "rioters murdered between 150 and 180 Jews, injured 600 others, and raped an undetermined number of women. They also looted some 1,500 stores and homes". Also 300-400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.[55]

In June–July 1941, encouraged by the Einsatzgruppen in the city of Lviv the Ukrainian People's Militia perpetrated two citywide pogroms in which around 6,000 Polish Jews were murdered, in retribution for alleged collaboration with the Soviet NKVD. In Lithuania, some local police led by Algirdas Klimaitis and Lithuanian partisansconsisting of LAF units reinforced by 3,600 deserters from the 29th Lithuanian Territorial Corps of the Red Army promulgated anti-Jewish pogroms in Kaunas along with occupying Nazis. On 25–26 June 1941, about 3,800 Jews were killed and synagogues and Jewish settlements burned.

During the Jedwabne pogrom of July 1941, ethnic Poles burned at least 340 Jews in a barn (Institute of National Remembrance) in the presence of Nazi German Ordnungspolizei. The role of the German Einsatzgruppe B remains the subject of debate.

Europe after World War II

After the end of World War II, a series of violent antisemitic incidents occurred against returning Jews throughout Europe, particularly in the Soviet-occupied East where Nazi propagandists had extensively promoted the notion of a Jewish-Communist conspiracy (see Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946 and Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946). Anti-Jewish riots also took place in Britain in 1947.

Pogroms in West Asia and North Africa

1834 pogroms in Ottoman Syria

See also: List of massacres in Ottoman Syria, 1834 Hebron pogrom and 1834 Safed pogrom.

There were two pogroms in Ottoman Syria in 1834.

1929 in Mandatory Palestine

See also: 1929 Palestine riots and 1929 Hebron massacre. In Mandatory Palestine under British administration, Jews were targeted by Arabs in the 1929 Hebron massacre during the 1929 Palestine riots. They followed other violent incidents such as the 1920 Nebi Musa riots.[56]

British North Africa in 1945

Anti-Jewish rioters killed over 140 Jews in the 1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania. The 1945 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania was the most violent rioting against Jews in North Africa in modern times. From November 5 to November 7, 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a pogrom in British-military-controlled Tripolitania. 38 Jews were killed in Tripoli from where the riots spread. 40 were killed in Amrus, 34 in Zanzur, 7 in Tajura, 13 in Zawia and 3 in Qusabat.[57]

In Syria in 1947 and Morocco 1948

See also: 1947 Anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo, 1947 Aden riots, 1948 Anti-Jewish Riots in Oujda and Jerada and History of Moroccan Jews.

Following the start of the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, a number of anti-Jewish events occurred throughout the Arab world, some of which have been described as pogroms. In 1947, half of Aleppo's 10,000 Jews left the city in the wake of the Aleppo riots, while other anti-Jewish riots took place in British Aden and then in 1948 in the French Moroccan cities of Oujda and Jerada.

Sabra and Shatila massacre in 1982

The Sabra and Shatila massacre is occasionally referred to as a pogrom.[58] [59]

Attacks in the occupied West Bank (2008)

In 2008, two attacks in the Occupied West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.[60]

West Bank settler pogroms in the early 2020s

There were many attacks by Israeli Settlers against Palestinians in the occupied West Bank leading up to and during the full scale war in the Gaza Strip in 2023 and 2024.[61]

The Huwara rampage in February 2023

Israel's military was accused of 'deliberately turning blind eye' to violent riots and legal experts said the state could face war crime charges.[62] The rioters killed one Palestinian, 37-year-old Sameh Aqtash, and wounded dozens, while torching houses and cars.[63]

Top Israeli general in the West Bank, Yehuda Fuchs, Tuesday night referred to the Israeli settlers’ actions as a “pogrom”.[64] “The incident in Hawara was a pogrom carried out by outlaws,” said Major General Yehuda Fuchs, Israel’s top brass in the occupied West Bank.[65]

Jewish American documentary maker Simone Zimmerman also used the term Pogrom to describe the attacks on Palestinians by Israeli Settlers in Hawara in February 2023.[66] Zimmerman described these attacks as being committed by settlers while the Israeli army stood by and let it happen.

Hamas-initiated attacks on 7 October 2023

See main article: 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel.

Amoungst this series of attacks, there was one unusually large attack that targeted Israelis and foreigners in the Gaza Envelope,[67] [68] which is occasionally also referred to as a pogrom.

On 7 October 2023, Hamas' Al Qassam Brigades militant wing (based in the Gaza Strip) initiated an attack on Israel, and incited other groups and individuals to join them.[69] This resulted in the deaths of over 695 Israeli civilians, some of whom were Arab Israelis.[70] In the attacks Al Qassam and other armed groups from Gaza also took approximately 250 people, many of which were non-Israelis hostage, including infants, elderly, and people who had already been severely injured.[71]

The 7 October attacks were described as a "Pogrom" by Suzanne Rutland, who defined a Pogrom as a government approved attack on Jews and pointed out that the attacks were initiated by the Hamas Government of Gaza.[72] This label is also used for 7 October by pro-Israel sources, such as the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.[73] An editorial in the Wall Street Journal referred to 7 October attacks as a pogrom as well,[74] while rejecting that label for the Huwara rampage in that same year.[63]

Some sources from in Israel and in the Jewish diaspora have specifically objected to the characterisation of 7 October as a pogrom. saying the events on 7 October do not resemble the original historical pogroms in Russia.[75] The Jerusalem Post described the 7 October attacks as "historically unique", as well as "foreseeable" and "expected".[76] Judith Butler, controversially described the attacks as an "act of armed resistance".[77]

West Bank pogroms during the Israeli war in Gaza

Settler pogroms and similar violence coercively depopulated multiple Palestinian villages in the West Bank, and Bedouin villages in 48 Israel.

2024 riots against Syrian refugees in Turkey

See also: Syrians in Turkey.

In 2024 there were pogroms against Syrian refugees in Turkey.[78]

Pogroms elsewhere in the Asia–Pacific

In the Indopacific, also known as the Asia–Pacific region, the most commonly targeted group are Muslims, but other ethnic and religious minorities are also targeted.

1984 anti-Sikh riots

See main article: 1984 anti-Sikh riots. Sikhs were targeted in Delhi and other parts of India during a pogrom in October 1984.[79] [80] [81]

2002 Gujarat pogrom

See also: 2002 Gujarat riots and Hindutva.

The 2002 Gujarat riots are also known as the Gujarat pogrom.[82] The violence was connected to the Ayodhya dispute and the demolition of the Babri Masjid.

2005 Cronulla riots

The 2005 Cronulla riots (also known as the "Cronulla Race Riots" or the "Cronulla pogrom")[83] were a series of race riots in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

2017 anti-Rohingya pogroms

See also: Rohingya genocide.

The 2017 Rohingya genocide, was a series of pogroms and other violence committed against the Rohingya minority of Myanmar,[84] [85] particularly in Rakhine State.[86] Facebook was accused of inciting mob violence via social media.[87]

List of events named Pogroms

Scope: This is a partial list of events for which one of the commonly accepted names includes the word "pogrom". Inclusion in this list is based solely on evidence in multiple reliable sources that a name including the word "pogrom" is one of the accepted names for that event. A reliable source that merely describes the event as being a pogrom does not qualify the event for inclusion in this list. The word Pogrom must appear in the source as part of a name for the event.

See also

See main article: Outline of genocide studies.

Antisemitism

References and notes

Citations

Further reading

See main article: Bibliography of genocide studies.

Notes and References

  1. Encyclopedia: The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe . The common usage of the term pogrom to describe any attack against Jews throughout history disguises the great variation in the scale, nature, motivation and intent of such violence at different times. . Pogroms. . YIVO Institute for Jewish Research . 2010 . John . Klier . John Klier.
  2. News: Indira Gandhi's death remembered. Bedi. Rahul. 1 November 2009. BBC. The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing. 2 November 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20091102113639/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8306420.stm. 2 November 2009 . live.
  3. News: The Soul-Wounds of Massacre, or Why We Should Not Forget the 2002 Gujarat Pogrom . 26 May 2024 . . 27 February 2022 . en . This article is extracted and adapted from the author’s book Between Memory and Forgetting: Massacre and the Modi Years in Gujarat, Yoda Press, 2019..
  4. Web site: 'As a Jew, I was ashamed at the scenes of Jews opening fire at innocent Arabs in Hebron. There is no other definition than the term "pogrom" to describe what I have seen.' . . Jason . Koutsoukis . 15 September 2008 . 14 November 2023 . Settlers attack Palestinian village . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113419/https://www.smh.com.au/world/settlers-attack-palestinian-village-20080915-gdsuyu.html . 5 April 2023.
  5. News: Opinion | Hamas Puts Its Pogrom on Video . . 27 October 2023.
  6. News: Olmert condemns settler 'pogrom' . . 7 December 2008 . 15 February 2015.
  7. Codex Judaica: chronological index of Jewish history; p. 203 Máttis Kantor – 2005 "The Jews were savagely attacked and massacred, by sometimes hysterical mobs."
  8. John Marshall John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture; p. 376 2006 "The period of the Black Death saw the massacre of Jews across Germany, and in Aragon, and Flanders,"
  9. Anna Foa The Jews of Europe after the black death 2000 p. 13 "The first massacres took place in April 1348 in Toulon, where the Jewish quarter was raided and forty Jews were murdered in their homes. Shortly afterwards, violence broke out in Barcelona."
  10. Book: Durant, Will . The Renaissance . Simon and Schuster . 1953 . 730–731 . 0-671-61600-5.
  11. Web site: Barbara . Newman . The Passion of the Jews of Prague: The Pogrom of 1389 and the Lessons of a Medieval Parody . Church History . 81 . 1 . March 2012 . 1-26.
  12. Web site: Herman Rosenthal . Herman Rosenthal . Chmielnicki, Bogdan Zinovi . . 1901.
  13. Book: Elon, Amos . Amos Elon . 2002 . The Pity of It All: A History of the Jews in Germany, 1743–1933 . . 0-8050-5964-4 . 103 .
  14. Book: Davies, Norman . Norman Davies . God's Playground: a history of Poland . Volume II: Revised Edition . . 2005 . Rossiya: The Russian Partition (1772–1918) . https://books.google.com/books?id=9Tbed6iMNLEC&q=alien+imposition . 60–61 . 978-0-19-925340-1 . God's Playground.
  15. Web site: Shtetl . . . The Gale Group. Also in: Web site: Pale of Settlement . History Crash Course #56 . Rabbi Ken Spiro . 9 May 2009 . Aish.com.
  16. Heinz-Dietrich . Löwe . Pogroms in Russia: Explanations, Comparisons, Suggestions . Jewish Social Studies . New Series . 14 November 2023 . 11 . 1 . Autumn 2004 . 17– . 'Pogroms were concentrated in time. Four phases can be observed: in 1819, 1830, 1834, and 1818-19.' . 10.1353/jss.2005.0007 . 201771701 .
  17. Book: Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History . John Doyle Klier . John Klier . Shlomo Lambroza . Cambridge University Press . 376 . 2004 . 978-0-521-52851-1. Also in: Book: Shatterzone of Empires . Omer Bartov . Omer Bartov . 2013 . Note 45. It should be remembered that for all the violence and property damage caused by the 1881 pogroms, the number of deaths could be counted on one hand. . 97. Indiana University Press . 978-0-253-00631-8. For further information, see: Book: Russian Jews Between the Reds and the Whites, 1917–1920 . Oleg Budnitskii . University of Pennsylvania Press . 2012 . 978-0-8122-0814-6 . 17–20.
  18. Henry Abramson . Henry Abramson . The end of intimate insularity: new narratives of Jewish history in the post-Soviet era . Acts . 10–13 July 2002.
  19. News: Zaretsky . Robert . Why so many people call the Oct. 7 massacre a 'pogrom' — and what they miss when they do so . 6 June 2024 . . 27 October 2023 . en . Thanks to the work of the historian John Klier, we also know that the Czarist authorities neither choreographed nor encouraged the pogroms. Instead, they were mostly spontaneous and perhaps as much about managing social status as they were about murdering Jews..
  20. Kishinef (Kishinev) . Herman. Rosenthal . Max. Rosenthal.
  21. Book: Lev Shternberg . Sergei Kan . Sergei Kan . U of Nebraska Press . 2009 . 978-0-8032-2470-4 . 156 .
  22. Book: Joseph, Paul . The SAGE Encyclopedia of War . . 1353 . 2016 . 978-1-4833-5988-5 .
  23. Book: Lambroza, Shlomo . Current Research on Anti-Semitism: Hostages of Modernization . Herbert A. . Strauss . Herbert A. Strauss . . 1993 . 978-3-11-013715-6 . 1256, 1244–45 . Jewish self-defence.
  24. Book: Tatz, Colin . The Magnitude of Genocide . Colin Tatz . Winton Higgins . . 2016 . 978-1-4408-3161-4 . 26 .
  25. Book: Diner, Hasia . Hasia Diner . The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000 . . 23 August 2004 . 978-0-520-93992-9 . 71–111 . 10.1525/9780520939929 . 243416759.
  26. Book: Gitelman, Zvi Y. . Zvi Gitelman . 2001 . 25 . Revolution and the Ambiguities . . Chapter 2 . 978-0-253-33811-2.
  27. Book: Gitelman, Zvi Y. . Zvi Gitelman . A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present . 65–70 . Indiana University Press . 2001 . 978-0-253-33811-2.
  28. Book: Kadish, Sharman . Sharman Kadish . Bolsheviks and British Jews: The Anglo-Jewish Community, Britain, and the Russian Revolution . . 87 . 978-0-7146-3371-8 . 1992.
  29. Book: Yekelchyk, Serhy . Serhy Yekelchyk . Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation . . 2007 . 978-0-19-530546-3 . 106.
  30. Book: Magocsi, Paul Robert . History of Ukraine – The Land and Its Peoples . Paul Robert Magocsi . . 2010 . 978-1-4426-4085-6 . 537.
  31. Book: Kleg, Milton . Hate Prejudice and Racism . . 1993 . 4 . 978-0-7914-1536-8.
  32. Book: Levin, Nora . Nora Levin . 1991 . The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival . . 978-0-8147-5051-3 . 43.
  33. Encyclopedia: Encyclopaedia Judaica . 2008 . Pogroms . The Jewish Virtual Library.
  34. Budnitski . Oleg . he:יהודי רוסיה בין האדומים ללבנים . Russian Jews Between the Reds and the Whites . 1997 . Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies . 12 . 189–198 . 23535861 . 0333-9068.
  35. Henry . Abramson . Henry Abramson . Jewish Representation in the Independent Ukrainian Governments of 1917–1920 . . 50 . 3 . September 1991 . 542–550 . 10.2307/2499851 . 2499851 . 181641495 .
  36. Book: Morgenthau, Henry . All in a Life-time . Minsk Bolsheviks. . Doubleday & Page . 414 . 1922 . 25930642.
  37. Book: Sloin, Andrew . The Jewish Revolution in Belorussia: Economy, Race, and Bolshevik Power . 2017 . . 978-0-253-02463-3. .
  38. Book: Wandycz, Piotr Stefan . The United States and Poland . Piotr S. Wandycz . . 1980 . American foreign policy library . 978-0-674-92685-1 . 166.
  39. Book: Stachura, Peter D. . Poland, 1918–1945: an Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic . Peter Stachura . . 2004 . 978-0-415-34358-9 . 85 .
  40. Book: Bemporad, Elissa . Becoming Soviet Jews: The Bolshevik Experiment in Minsk . 2013 . Indiana University Press . 978-0-253-00827-5.
  41. Book: Michlic, Joanna B. . 2006 . Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present . . 111 . 978-0-8032-5637-8 . In three days 72 Jews were murdered and 443 others injured. The chief perpetrators of these murders were soldiers and officers of the so-called Blue Army, set up in France in 1917 by General Jozef Haller (1893–1960) and lawless civilians.
  42. Book: Strauss, Herbert Arthur . Herbert A. Strauss . 1993 . Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39 . . 1048 . 978-3-11-013715-6.
  43. Book: Gilman . Sander L. . Milton . Shain . Jewries at the Frontier: Accommodation, Identity, Conflict . University of Illinois Press . 1999 . 39 . 978-0-252-06792-1 . After the end of the fighting and as a result of the Polish victory, some of the Polish soldiers and the civilian population started a pogrom against the Jewish inhabitants. Polish soldiers maintained that the Jews had sympathized with the Ukrainian position during the conflicts.
  44. Book: Rozenblit, Marsha L. . 2001 . Reconstructing a National Identity: The Jews of Habsburg Austria during World War I . . 137 . 978-0-19-535066-1 . The largest pogrom occurred in Lemberg [''= Lwow'']. Polish soldiers led an attack on the Jewish quarter of the city on November 21–23, 1918 that claimed 73 Jewish lives..
  45. Book: Gitelman, Zvi Y. . 2003 . The Emergence of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe . . 58 . 978-0-8229-4188-0 . In November 1918, Polish soldiers who had taken Lwow (Lviv) from the Ukrainians killed more than seventy Jews in a pogrom there, burning synagogues, destroying Jewish property, and leaving hundreds of Jewish families homeless..
  46. Book: Llaudó Avila, Eduard . 2021 . 7a . Parcir . 978-84-18849-10-7 . Manresa . Racisme i supremacisme polítics a l'Espanya contemporània . Racism and political supremacism in contemporary Spain . ca.
  47. Book: Hopkinson, Michael . 2004 . The Irish War of Independence . Gill and Macmillan . 155 . 978-0-7171-3741-1.
  48. Book: Parkinson, Alan F . 2004 . Belfast's Unholy War . Four Courts Press . 317 . 978-1-85182-792-3.
  49. Web site: The Swanzy Riots, 1920 . 2018 . Irish Linen Centre & Lisburn Museum . 26 December 2021.
  50. Book: Kathleen, Thorne . 2014 . Echoes of Their Footsteps, The Irish Civil War 1922–1924 . Generation Organization . Newberg, OR . 6 . 978-0-692-24513-2.
  51. News: Robert . Philpot . The true history behind London's much-lauded anti-fascist Battle of Cable Street . . 15 September 2018 . 14 November 2023.
  52. Book: Browning, Christopher R. . Christopher Browning . 1992 . 1998 . Arrival in Poland . Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland . . 1 May 2013 . 51, 98, 109, 124 . live . 19 October 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131019043400/http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf.
  53. Book: Meier, Anna . Die Intelligenzaktion: Die Vernichtung der polnischen Oberschicht im Gau Danzig-Westpreußen . de . The intelligence operation: The destruction of the Polish upper class in the Danzig-West Prussia district . VDM Verlag . 978-3-639-04721-9.
  54. Book: Fischel, Jack . Jack Fischel . 1998 . The Holocaust . . 41 . 978-0-313-29879-0.
  55. Kaplan . Robert D. . In Defense of Empire . . April 2014 . 13–15 . limited.
  56. Book: Klieman, Aaron S. . The Turn Toward Violence, 1920–1929 . 978-0-8240-4938-6 . 1987 . Garland Publishing.
  57. Harvey E. Goldberg, "Rites and Riots: The Tripolitanian Pogrom of 1945," Plural Societies 8 (Spring 1977): 35-56. p112
  58. What Sharon Did. Christopher. Hitchens. Slate . 5 January 2006. slate.com.
  59. News: Siddiqi . Muhammad Ali . Of Sabra-Shatila . 29 May 2024 . DAWN.COM . 19 October 2020 . en.
  60. Web site: 'As a Jew, I was ashamed at the scenes of Jews opening fire at innocent Arabs in Hebron. There is no other definition than the term "pogrom" to describe what I have seen.' . . Jason . Koutsoukis . 15 September 2008 . 14 November 2023 . Settlers attack Palestinian village . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113419/https://www.smh.com.au/world/settlers-attack-palestinian-village-20080915-gdsuyu.html . 5 April 2023.
  61. News: The pogroms are working - the transfer is already happening . 29 May 2024 . www.btselem.org . . September 2023 . en.
  62. News: Israeli press review: Columnist warns 'Kristallnacht was relived in Huwwara' . 29 May 2024 . Middle East Eye . 28 February 2023 . en.
  63. News: Troy . Gil . The Huwara Riot Was No 'Pogrom' Anti-Palestinian violence comes from the margins of Israeli society. Anti-Jewish violence comes from the Palestinian mainstream. . 15 June 2024 . 3 March 2023.
  64. Web site: US condemns Israel far right minister's call for Palestinian town 'to be erased'. Hadas Gold,Richard Allen Greene,Michael Schwartz,Jennifer. Hansler. 1 March 2023. CNN.
  65. Web site: It's a dangerous turn when a pogrom becomes an act of faith. Daoud. Kuttab. 3 March 2023.
  66. Web site: Why so many young Jews are turning on Israel - Simone Zimmerman - The Big Picture S4E7 (time stamp: 20:40) . 25 April 2024. www.youtube.com.
  67. News: Hamas attack 'deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust', says Biden, as Israeli jets pound Gaza . The Guardian . 12 October 2023 .
  68. https://www.timesofisrael.com/was-hamass-attack-on-saturday-the-bloodiest-day-for-jews-since-the-holocaust/
  69. Web site: "We announce the start of the al-Aqsa Flood" . Fondazione Internazionale Oasis . 8 April 2024 . en . 13 December 2023.
  70. Jim Zanotti, and Jeremy M. Sharp, "Israel and Hamas 2023 Conflict In Brief: Overview, US Policy, and Options for Congress." (U.S. Congressional Research Service, 2023) online.
  71. News: The Names of Those Abducted From Israel . Haaretz . 22 October 2023 . 8 April 2024.
  72. Web site: The Australian Jew dubbed traitor for speaking out against the war in Gaza (time stamp 19:00) . www.youtube.com. 5 May 2024 .
  73. Web site: The Rise in Antisemitic Attacks in the UK since Hamas's October 7 Pogrom is Unprecedented .
  74. News: Opinion | Hamas Puts Its Pogrom on Video . . 27 October 2023.
  75. News: Zaretsky . Robert . Why so many people call the Oct. 7 massacre a 'pogrom' — and what they miss when they do so . 6 June 2024 . The Forward . 27 October 2023 . en.
  76. Web site: October 7 is historically unique . November 2023 .
  77. News: Judith Butler, by calling Hamas attacks an 'act of armed resistance,' rekindles controversy on the left . 8 June 2024 . Le Monde.fr . 15 March 2024 . en.
  78. https://www.newarab.com/news/syrians-fear-violence-turkey-teenager-leaks-personal-data
  79. News: State pogroms glossed over . . 31 December 2005 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110811083708/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-12-31/india/27838902_1_communal-tension-communal-violence-gujarat-riots . 11 August 2011.
  80. Web site: Anti-Sikh riots a pogrom: Khushwant . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20181022162632/http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/may/09sikh.htm . 22 October 2018 . 23 September 2009 . Rediff.com.
  81. News: Bedi . Rahul . 1 November 2009 . Indira Gandhi's death remembered . . live . 2 November 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091102113639/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8306420.stm . 2 November 2009 . The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing..
  82. News: The Soul-Wounds of Massacre, or Why We Should Not Forget the 2002 Gujarat Pogrom . 26 May 2024 . . 27 February 2022 . en . This article is extracted and adapted from the author’s book Between Memory and Forgetting: Massacre and the Modi Years in Gujarat, Yoda Press, 2019..
  83. News: Al-Natour, Ryan --- "'Of Middle Eastern Appearance' is a Flawed Racial Profiling Descriptor" [2017] CICrimJust 17; (2017) 29(2) Current Issues in Criminal Justice 107 ]. 9 July 2024 . classic.austlii.edu.au . 2017 .
  84. News: The Rohingya pogrom . 2 July 2024 . The Jerusalem Post JPost.com . 11 September 2017 . en.
  85. News: McIntyre . Juliette . Simpson . Adam . A tale of two genocide cases: International justice in Ukraine and Myanmar . 2 July 2024 . 26 May 2022.
  86. News: McIntyre . Juliette . Simpson . Adam . A tale of two genocide cases: International justice in Ukraine and Myanmar . 2 July 2024 . 26 May 2022.
  87. News: Can Facebook be blamed for pogroms against Rohingyas in Myanmar? . 2 July 2024 . The Economist . 9 December 2021.
  88. News: Davies. David. David Martin Davies. 16 January 2015. Should Texas Remember Or Forget The Slocum Massacre?. Texas Public Radio. Texas. 17 November 2021. "But there was some follow-up reporting that there was a Texas Rangers investigation and indictments of the white men who led the Slocum pogrom.".
  89. News: Madigan . Tim . Tim Madigan . 16 January 2016 . Texas marks racial slaughter more than a century later . The Washington Post . Texas . 17 November 2021 . "For more than a century, that was how one of the nation's worst racial pogroms in post-Civil War history was kept alive...".
  90. Web site: 5 June 2014 . 1934: A Rare Kind of Pogrom Begins, in Turkey . . 17 January 2023 . On June 5, 1934, violent actions against Jews of several towns in the Turkish region of Thrace began. Although no Jews were killed, the extensive destruction of property, and the very fact of the attacks in a country that was always known for its hospitality to Jews, led to many of them moving from Thrace, or emigrating from Turkey altogether. Recent historical research has led some scholars to conclude that this was the goal of the government in the actions it took in the weeks prior to the pogroms....
  91. Web site: Yücel . Hakan . 25 December 2021 . ŞİDDET OLAYLARININ ALEVİ TOPLUMU ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİSİ . Alevi Düşünce Ocağı . tr.
  92. News: Sönmez . Seyit . 19 December 2020 . Maraş pogromu . . tr.
  93. Web site: Anti-Sikh riots a pogrom: Khushwant . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20181022162632/http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/may/09sikh.htm . 22 October 2018 . 23 September 2009 . Rediff.com.
  94. News: The Soul-Wounds of Massacre, or Why We Should Not Forget the 2002 Gujarat Pogrom . 26 May 2024 . . 27 February 2022 . en . This article is extracted and adapted from the author’s book Between Memory and Forgetting: Massacre and the Modi Years in Gujarat, Yoda Press, 2019..
  95. Web site: Al-Natour, Ryan --- "'Of Middle Eastern Appearance' is a Flawed Racial Profiling Descriptor" [2017] CICrimJust 17; (2017) 29(2) Current Issues in Criminal Justice 107 .
  96. Web site: Dr. Shaikh Mujibur Rehman . Violence against Muslims: A Case of Muzaffarnagar Pogrom 2013 and its Aftermath . Tufts University . 20 July 2024 . 1 November 2023.
  97. News: Dr. Shaikh Mujibur Rehman . Academics, Lectures & Seminars: Violence against Muslims: A Case of Muzaffarnagar Pogrom 2013 and its Aftermath . 20 July 2024 . events.tufts.edu . 1 November 2023.
  98. News: Expecting justice for Muslim victims of 2013 Muzaffarnagar pogrom is ludicrous . 20 July 2024 . People's Review . 20 July 2019.
  99. News: The Rohingya pogrom . 2 July 2024 . The Jerusalem Post JPost.com . 11 September 2017 . en.
  100. News: McIntyre . Juliette . Simpson . Adam . A tale of two genocide cases: International justice in Ukraine and Myanmar . 2 July 2024 . 26 May 2022.
  101. News: Oren Ziv (אורן זיו) . Investigation: The person killed in the Huwara pogrom was probably shot by settlers . he: תחקיר: ההרוג בפוגרום חווארה נורה כנראה על ידי מתנחלים . https://www.mekomit.co.il/%d7%aa%d7%97%d7%a7%d7%99%d7%a8-%d7%94%d7%94%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%92-%d7%91%d7%a4%d7%95%d7%92%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%9d-%d7%97%d7%95%d7%95%d7%90%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%a0%d7%95%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%9b%d7%a0%d7%a8%d7%90%d7%94/ . 20 July 2024 . local call (שיחה מקומית) . 28 March 2024 . he-IL.
  102. Web site: Levy . Gideon . Shock, rage and despair in Hawara in wake of settler pogrom . Haaretz . 25 May 2024 . en . 4 March 2023 . Photo caption: A building set on fire during the Hawara pogrom. Credit: Majdi Mohammed/AP.
  103. Salameh . Rula . I Witnessed a Shocking Attack on Palestinian Civilians. What I Saw May Be a Sign of What's to Come . 26 May 2024 . TIME . 18 March 2023 . en . This pogrom on Huwara was far from isolated. Settlers, backed by the Israeli military, have attacked Palestinians communities for years, violence which has been rapidly spiraling..
  104. News: Oren Ziv (אורן זיו) . Investigation: The person killed in the Huwara pogrom was probably shot by settlers . he: תחקיר: ההרוג בפוגרום חווארה נורה כנראה על ידי מתנחלים . https://www.mekomit.co.il/%d7%aa%d7%97%d7%a7%d7%99%d7%a8-%d7%94%d7%94%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%92-%d7%91%d7%a4%d7%95%d7%92%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%9d-%d7%97%d7%95%d7%95%d7%90%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%a0%d7%95%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%9b%d7%a0%d7%a8%d7%90%d7%94/ . 20 July 2024 . local call (שיחה מקומית) . 28 March 2024 . he-IL.
  105. News: Aytekin . Ayse Betul . Israeli settlers kill Palestinian man who helped quake victims in Türkiye . 20 July 2024 . . en .

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