Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance explained

As Classical Latin developed into Proto-Romance it experienced various sound changes. An approximate summary of changes on the phonemic level is provided below. Their precise order is uncertain.

General changes

• pronounced as //h// is lost without a trace in all positions.
  • If this results in a collision of identical short vowels, they simply form the corresponding long vowel. Cf. pronounced as //koˈhorte// > pronounced as //ˈkoːrte//.
• Final pronounced as //m// is lost without a trace in polysyllabic words. Cf. pronounced as //ˈnunkʷam// > pronounced as //ˈnunkʷa//.
  • In monosyllables it tends to survive as pronounced as //n//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkʷem// > pronounced as //ˈkʷen// > Spanish Spanish; Castilian: quién.
• Clusters consisting of a stop followed by a liquid consonant draw the stress position forward. Cf. pronounced as //ˈinteɡram// > pronounced as //inˈteɡra//.
  • Two apparent counterexamples are pronounced as //ˈpalpebraːs// and pronounced as //ˈpullitra//, judging by the Old French outcomes French, Old (842-ca.1400);: palpres and French, Old (842-ca.1400);: poltre.
• pronounced as //n// is lost before fricatives, leaving the preceding vowel lengthened (but no longer nasalised). Cf. pronounced as //ˈsponsa// > pronounced as //ˈspoːsa//.
  • pronounced as //n// is often retained, or later restored, if it belongs to a prefix (in- or con-) or to a word which has forms where a fricative does not follow pronounced as //n//. Cf. pronounced as //deːˈfensa// > French French: défe'''n'''se, thanks to related forms such as the infinitive pronounced as //deːˈfendere// > French French: défe'''n'''dre.
• Sequences of two pronounced as //i(ː)// generally merge to a single long pronounced as //iː//. Cf. pronounced as //au̯ˈdiiː, konˈsiliiː// > pronounced as //au̯ˈdiː, koːˈsiliː//.
• In some outlying rural areas, the diphthongs pronounced as //ae̯// and pronounced as //au̯// reduce to pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //oː// respectively in Classical times. Thanks to influence from such dialects, a number of Latin words acquire monophthongized variants early on; cf. pronounced as //ˈfae̯ks~ˈfeːks// or pronounced as //ˈkau̯lis~ˈkoːlis//. Most words, however, remain unaffected by this.^[1]
  • Later, 'mainstream' Latin experiences a general monophthongization of pronounced as //ae̯// to pronounced as //ɛː//, and of pronounced as //oe̯// to pronounced as //eː//, whilst pronounced as //au̯// remains intact in most cases. Cf. pronounced as //'lae̯ta, 'poe̯na, 'au̯rum// > pronounced as //'lɛːta, 'peːna, 'au̯ru//.
• pronounced as //w// turns to the fricative pronounced as //β//, as does original pronounced as //b// in intervocalic position or after pronounced as //r//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈwiːwere, ˈtrabem// > pronounced as //ˈβiːβere, ˈtraβe//.
  • Intervocalic pronounced as //β// in contact with a rounded vowel tends to disappear. Cf. pronounced as //ˈriːwus// > pronounced as //ˈriːβus// > pronounced as //ˈriːus//.
    • It is often restored if other forms of the word have a non-rounded vowel following pronounced as //β//. In this case cf. the nominative plural pronounced as //ˈriːβiː//.
• In hiatus, unstressed front vowels become pronounced as //j//, while unstressed back vowels become pronounced as //w//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈfiːlius, ˈsapuiː// > pronounced as //ˈfiːljus, ˈsapwiː//.
  • The same process also affects stressed front and back vowels in hiatus if they are antepenultimate (two syllables from the end of the word). When pronounced as //j// is produced, primary stress shifts to the following vowel, but when pronounced as //w// is produced, primary stress shifts instead to the preceding syllable. Cf. pronounced as //fiːˈliolus, teˈnueram// > pronounced as //fiːˈljolus, ˈtenwera//.
  • If pronounced as //w// is formed after a geminate consonant, it is deleted. Cf. pronounced as //batˈtuere// > pronounced as //ˈbattwere// > pronounced as //ˈbattere//.
  • pronounced as //w// is deleted before unstressed back vowels. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkarduus, ˈunɡuoː// > pronounced as //ˈkardwus, ˈunɡwoː// > pronounced as //ˈkardus, ˈunɡoː//.^[2]
    • pronounced as //w// is occasionally deleted before unstressed non-back vowels as well. Cf. pronounced as //februˈaːrius// > pronounced as //feˈβrwaːrjus// > pronounced as //feˈβraːrjus//.
    • Similarly, pronounced as //kʷ// is delabialized to pronounced as //k// before back vowels, whether stressed or not. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkʷoːmodo, ˈkokʷoː// > pronounced as //ˈkoːmodo, ˈkokoː//.
  • If these changes result in sequences of pronounced as //je(ː)// or pronounced as //wo(ː)//, these merge to pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //oː// respectively. Cf. pronounced as //paˈrieteːs, duˈodekim// > pronounced as //paˈrjeteːs, ˈdwodeki// > pronounced as //paˈreːteːs, ˈdoːdeki//.
  • If pronounced as //j// forms after pronounced as //kʷ//, the resulting pronounced as //kʷj// simplifies and delabializes to pronounced as //kj//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈlakʷeum// > pronounced as //ˈlakʷju// > pronounced as //ˈlakju//.
• pronounced as //u// raises before pronounced as //i(ː)// or pronounced as //j//. Cf. pronounced as /[ˈkʊi̯, ˈfʊiː]/ > pronounced as /[ˈkui̯, ˈfuiː]/ > Italian Italian: cui, Italian: fui (not *coi, *foi).
• pronounced as //ɡ// before pronounced as //m// vocalizes to pronounced as //u̯//. Cf. pronounced as //fraɡˈmenta, ˈsaɡma// > pronounced as //frau̯ˈmenta, ˈsau̯ma//.
• Before or after a consonant, and also word-finally, pronounced as //ks// reduces to pronounced as //s//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkalks, ˈsekstus// > pronounced as //ˈkals, ˈsestus//.^[3]
  • Intervocalically, it sometimes metathesizes to pronounced as //sk//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈwiːksit// > pronounced as //ˈβiːskit//.
• Words beginning with pronounced as //sC// receive an initial supporting vowel pronounced as /[ɪ]/, unless preceded by a word ending in a vowel. Cf. pronounced as /[ˈskɔla]/ > pronounced as /[ɪsˈkɔla]/.
  • Subsequently, any initial pronounced as //e// or pronounced as //ɪ// before an pronounced as //sC// cluster is reinterpreted as a supporting vowel and treated accordingly. Cf. pronounced as //ˈskala, eksˈkadere// > *pronounced as /[ɪsˈkala, ɪskaˈdere]/ > Italian Italian: scala, Italian: scadere; French French: échelle, French: échoir.
• pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //oː// before pronounced as //stj// are raised, respectively, to pronounced as //iː// and pronounced as //uː//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈbeːstia, ˈoːstium// > pronounced as //ˈbiːstja, ˈuːstja// > Italian Italian: biscia, Italian: uscio.
• Compound verbs stressed on a prefix are usually reconstructed according to their prefixless equivalent, with their stress shifted forward from the prefix. Cf. pronounced as //ˈdispliket// > *pronounced as //disˈplaket//, by analogy with the simplex form pronounced as //ˈplaket//.^[4]
  • pronounced as //ˈrekipit// simply yields pronounced as //reˈkipit// (rather than *pronounced as //reˈkapit//), perhaps because the verb, while recognizable as a compound, was not easy to identify with the original pronounced as //ˈkapit//.
  • Some words such as pronounced as //ˈkolliɡoː// 'fasten' are apparently not recognized as compounds at all and so remain unchanged.
• Monosyllabic nouns ending in a consonant receive an epenthetic final pronounced as //e//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈrem// > pronounced as //ˈren// > pronounced as //ˈrene// > French French: rien.
• Phonemic vowel length gradually collapses via the following changes (which only affect vowel length, not quality):
  • Long vowels shorten in unstressed syllables.
  • Long vowels shorten in stressed closed syllables.
  • Short vowels lengthen in stressed open syllables.
• On account of the above, the vowel inventory changes from pronounced as //iː i eː e a aː o oː u uː// to pronounced as //i ɪ e ɛ a ɔ o ʊ u//, with pre-existing differences in vowel quality achieving phonemic status (and with no distinction between original pronounced as //a// and pronounced as //aː//). Additionally:
  • Unstressed pronounced as //ɛ// and pronounced as //ɔ// merge into pronounced as //e// and pronounced as //o// respectively.
  • In the second syllable of words with the structure [ˌσσˈσσ], pronounced as //i// and pronounced as //u// merge into pronounced as //ɪ// and pronounced as //ʊ// respectively.^[5]
• Word-internal pronounced as //j// 'merges' into a preceding consonant, palatalizing it. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkaːseum// > pronounced as //ˈkaːsju// > pronounced as //ˈkasʲu// > Italian pronounced as //ˈkatʃo//.

Sporadic changes

• Vowels other than pronounced as //a// are often syncopated in unstressed word-internal syllables, especially when in contact with liquid consonants or, to a lesser extent, nasal consonants or pronounced as //s//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈanɡulus, ˈkalida, ˈspekulum// > pronounced as //ˈanɡlʊs, ˈkalda, ˈspɛklu//.
  • In a few words, unstressed initial syllables followed by pronounced as //r// experience syncope. Cf. pronounced as //kʷiriːˈtaːre, diːˈreːktus// > pronounced as //kriˈtare, ˈdrektʊs//.
  • If this results in pronounced as //β// being followed by a consonant, it may vocalize to pronounced as //u̯//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈfabula// > pronounced as //ˈfaβla// > *pronounced as //ˈfau̯la// > Italian fòla.
  • If syncope results in pronounced as //tl//, the cluster is generally replaced by pronounced as //kl//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈwetulus// > pronounced as //ˈβɛklʊs//.
• In cases where a long vowel precedes a geminate consonant, one of the elements often shortens unpredictably, sometimes leading to such doublets as pronounced as //ˈkuppa~ˈkuːpa// > pronounced as //ˈkʊppa~ˈkupa// > Spanish Spanish; Castilian: copa, Spanish; Castilian: cuba; French French: coupe, French: cuve.
  • Long vowels sometimes shorten early on in closed syllables, even if followed by two different consonants, leading to variations such as pronounced as //ˈuːndekim~ˈundekim// > pronounced as //ˈundekɪ~ˈʊndekɪ// > Italian Italian: undici, Spanish Spanish; Castilian: once.
  • Conversely, the cluster pronounced as /[ŋk]/ may lengthen preceding vowels early on. Cf. pronounced as /[ˈkʷɪŋkʷɛ]/ > pronounced as /[ˈkʷiːŋkʷɛ]/ > pronounced as /[ˈkiŋkʷɛ]/.
• Pretonic vowels sporadically assimilate to, or dissimilate from, the stressed vowel of the following syllable.
  • pronounced as //a// can dissimilate to pronounced as //o// before a following pronounced as //a//. Cf. pronounced as //naˈtaːre// > pronounced as //noˈtare//.
  • pronounced as //iː// can dissimilate to pronounced as //e// before a following pronounced as //iː//. Cf. pronounced as //diːˈwiːnus, wiːˈkiːnus// > pronounced as //deˈβinʊs, βeˈkinʊs//.
  • pronounced as //au̯// can dissimilate to pronounced as //a// before a following pronounced as //u(ː)//. Cf. pronounced as //au̯ˈɡustus, au̯skulˈtaːre// > pronounced as //aˈɡʊstʊs, askʊlˈtare//.
  • pronounced as //o// can dissimilate to pronounced as //e// before a following back vowel. Cf. pronounced as //roˈtundus, soˈroːre// > pronounced as //reˈtʊndʊs, seˈrore//.
  • pronounced as //i// can assimilate to a following pronounced as //a(ː)//. Cf. pronounced as //silˈwaːtikus// > pronounced as //salˈβatɪkʊs//.
  • pronounced as //eː// can assimilate to a following pronounced as //oː//. Cf. *pronounced as //reːniˈoːne// > *pronounced as //roˈnʲone//.
  • pronounced as //iː// can assimilate to a following pronounced as //eː//. Cf. pronounced as //diːˈreːktus// > *pronounced as //deˈrektʊs//.
• pronounced as //oː// and pronounced as //u// may yield a low-mid vowel if followed by pronounced as //β//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈoːwum, ˈkolubra// > pronounced as //ˈɔβu, koˈlɔβra// > Italian Italian: uovo, Sardinian Sindhi: colòra.
• pronounced as //a// may yield a mid-vowel if preceded by pronounced as //j//. Cf. pronounced as //jakˈtaːre// > *pronounced as //jekˈtare//.
• pronounced as //r// assimilates to a following pronounced as //s// in a number of cases. Cf. pronounced as //ˈdorsum// > pronounced as //ˈdɔssu//.^[6]
  • After a long vowel, the resulting pronounced as //ss// reduces to pronounced as //s//. Cf. pronounced as //ˈsuːrsum// > pronounced as //ˈsusu//.
• Initial pronounced as //kr// and pronounced as //kV// sometimes voice. Cf. pronounced as //ˈkrassus// > pronounced as //ˈɡrassʊs//.
  • This is particularly frequent with borrowings from Greek. κρυπτή, καμπή > *pronounced as //ˈɡrʊpta, ˈɡamba// > Italian Italian: grotta, Italian: gamba.
• pronounced as //nd// sometimes assimilates to pronounced as //nn//. Cf. the alternation Latin: grundīre~grunnīre.
• There is occasional loss or assimilation of final pronounced as //s//, but it is nowhere regular until a much later period.
• When two neighbouring syllables each contain pronounced as //r//, one pronounced as //r// frequently dissimilates to pronounced as //l// or is deleted.

See also

• Appendix Probi
• Proto-Romance language
• Palatalization in the Romance languages

Bibliography

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• Book: Lloyd, Paul M. . From Latin to Spanish . American Philological Society . 1987 . Philadelphia.
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Notes and References

1. . This citation covers the following bullet-point as well.

2. .

3. . This citation covers the following bullet-point as well.

4. . This citation covers the following two bullet-points as well.

5. apud

6. . This citation covers the following bullet-point as well.