Parliamentary republic explained

A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process.^{[1] [2]} Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence.

Powers

In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).^{[1] [2]}

However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.

In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.

Historical development

Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.^[3]

Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.

Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.

Commonwealth of Nations

See main article: Commonwealth of Nations.

Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu and since 30 November 2021, Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.

Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.

List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems

Full parliamentary republics
Country/territory	Head of state	Head of state elected by	Cameral structure	Parliamentary republic adopted	Previous government form	Notes
Albania	Bajram Begaj	Parliament, by three-fifths majority	Unicameral	1991	One-party state
Armenia	Vahagn Khachaturyan	Parliament, by absolute majority	Unicameral	2018^[4]	Semi-presidential republic
Austria	Alexander Van der Bellen	Direct election, by two-round system	Bicameral	[1945<!--Presidents of Austria chose to abdicate their powers by convention c. 1966, has formally a semi-presidential constitution, dated from 1929.--> |style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (as part of [[Nazi Germany]], see Anschluss)||-| | style="text-align:center;"|Mohammed Shahabuddin| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991^[5] | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic||-| | style="text-align:center;"|Sandra Mason| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2021| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm)||-| Bosnia and Herzegovina| style="text-align:center;"|Christian Schmidt Milorad Dodik Šefik Džaferović Željko Komšić| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)||-| Bulgaria| style="text-align:center;"|Rumen Radev| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state||-| | style="text-align:center;"|Lai Ching-te| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post ^[6] | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral ^[7] | style="text-align:center;"|1946 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China) Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire)| style="text-align:center;"|Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in mainland China.|-| Croatia| style="text-align:center;"|Zoran Milanović| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2000| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic||-| Czech Republic| style="text-align:center;"|Petr Pavel| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority)| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1993| style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia)||-| Dominica| style="text-align:center;"|Sylvanie Burton| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1978| style="text-align:center;"|Associated state of the United Kingdom||-| Estonia| style="text-align:center;"|Alar Karis| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991^[8] | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state||-| Ethiopia| style="text-align:center;"|Sahle-Work Zewde| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state||-| Fiji| style="text-align:center;"|Wiliame Katonivere| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2014| style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship||-| Finland| style="text-align:center;"|Alexander Stubb| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2000^[9] | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic||-| | style="text-align:center;"|Salome Zourabichvili| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority (since 2024; previously direct election, by two-round system)| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2018^[10] | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic||-| Germany| style="text-align:center;"|Frank-Walter Steinmeier| style="text-align:center;"|Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates), by absolute majority^[11] | style="text-align:center;"|Two unicameral institutions^[12] | style="text-align:center;"|1949^[13] | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state(Nazi Germany)||-| Greece| style="text-align:center;"|Katerina Sakellaropoulou| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1975| style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy||-| Hungary| style="text-align:center;"|Tamás Sulyok| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1990| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic)||-| Iceland| style="text-align:center;"|Halla Tómasdóttir| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1944| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark)||-| India| style="text-align:center;"|Droupadi Murmu| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1950| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)||-| Iraq| style="text-align:center;"|Abdul Latif Rashid| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral^[14] | style="text-align:center;"|2005| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state||-| Ireland| style="text-align:center;"|Michael D. Higgins| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by instant-runoff vote| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1949^[15] | style="text-align:center;"|To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) 1936–1949: ambiguous||-| Israel| style="text-align:center;"|Isaac Herzog| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2001| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-parliamentary republic||-| Italy| style="text-align:center;"|Sergio Mattarella| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1946| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy| style="text-align:center;"|Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. |-| | style="text-align:center;"|Vjosa Osmani| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2008| style="text-align:center;"|UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia)||-| Latvia| style="text-align:center;"|Edgars Rinkēvičs| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991^[16] | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state||-| Lebanon| style="text-align:center;"|Najib Mikati (Acting)| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1941| style="text-align:center;"|Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon)||-| Malta| style="text-align:center;"|George Vella| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1974| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm^[17])^[18] ||-| Mauritius| style="text-align:center;"|Prithvirajsing Roopun| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1992| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm^[19] ^[20])||-| | style="text-align:center;"|Maia Sandu| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system (since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority)| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2001| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic||-| Montenegro| style="text-align:center;"|Jakov Milatović| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1992| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro)||-| Nepal| style="text-align:center;"|Ram Chandra Poudel| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislators| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral^[21] | style="text-align:center;"|2008^[22] | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy||-| | style="text-align:center;"|Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)||-| Pakistan| style="text-align:center;"|Asif Ali Zardari| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"| 2010^[23] ^[24] | style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic||-| Samoa| style="text-align:center;"|Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1960| style="text-align:center;"|Trust Territory of New Zealand||-| Serbia| style="text-align:center;"|Aleksandar Vučić| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro)||-| Singapore| style="text-align:center;"|Tharman Shanmugaratnam| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election (since 1993)| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1965| style="text-align:center;"|State of Malaysia||-| Slovakia| style="text-align:center;"|Peter Pellegrini| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament)| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1993| style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia)||-| Slovenia| style="text-align:center;"|Nataša Pirc Musar| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1991| style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)||-| Somalia| style="text-align:center;"|Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2012^[25] | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state||-| Trinidad and Tobago| style="text-align:center;"|Christine Kangaloo| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1976| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm^[26])||-| Togo| style="text-align:center;"|Faure Gnassingbé | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|2024| style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic||-| Vanuatu| style="text-align:center;"|Nikenike Vurobaravu| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1980| style="text-align:center;"|British–French condominium (New Hebrides)||-! colspan=7|Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency|-!Country!Head of state!Head of state elected by!Cameral structure!Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted!Previous government form!Notes|-| Botswana| style="text-align:center;"|Mokgweetsi Masisi| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1966| style="text-align:center;"|British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate)| |-|-| Kiribati| style="text-align:center;"|Taneti Maamau| style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1979| style="text-align:center;"|Protectorate|Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting.^[27] |-| Guyana| style="text-align:center;"|Irfaan Ali| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote^[28] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority)| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1980| style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic| style="text-align:center;"||-| Marshall Islands| style="text-align:center;"|David Kabua| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1979| style="text-align:center;"|UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)||-| Nauru| style="text-align:center;"|Russ Kun| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1968| style="text-align:center;"|UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.||-| South Africa| style="text-align:center;"|Cyril Ramaphosa| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1961| style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm^[29] ^[30] ^[31])| style="text-align:center;"|Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961 - 1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. |-! colspan=7|Assembly-independent systems|-!Country!Head of state!Head of state elected by!Cameral structure!Assembly-independent republic adopted!Previous government form!Notes|-| | style="text-align:center;"|Wesley Simina| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1986| style="text-align:center;"|UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)| The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms.^[32] |-| San Marino| style="text-align:center;"|Francesco Mussoni Giacomo Simoncini| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1291| style="text-align:center;"|Theocracy (part of the Papal States)| style="text-align:center;"|Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent|-| Suriname| style="text-align:center;"|Chan Santokhi| style="text-align:center;"|Parliament| style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral| style="text-align:center;"|1987| style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic||-!colspan=7 | Directorial systems|-!Country!Head of state!Head of state elected by!Cameral structure!Parliamentary republic adopted!Previous government form!Notes|-| Switzerland| style="text-align:center;" | Guy Parmelin Ignazio Cassis Ueli Maurer Simonetta Sommaruga Alain Berset Karin Keller-Sutter Viola Amherd| style="text-align:center;" | Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses| style="text-align:center;" | Bicameral| style="text-align:center;" | 1848| style="text-align:center;" | Confederation of states| style="text-align:center;" | Also has citizen-initiated referendums|} List of former parliamentary republics and related systems Country Became a parliamentary republic Status changed width=300px Changed to Reason for change Notes Full parliamentary republics SSR Abkhazia 1921 1931 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia 1931 1991 Full parliamentary republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia 1991 1994 Semi-presidential republic New constitution adopted 1918 1920 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic 1920 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Armenia First Austrian Republic 1920 1929 Constitutional amendment 1918 1920 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic 1920 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Azerbaijan 1918 1920 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic 1920 1990 Full parliamentary republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Byelorussia Belarus 1990 1994 Presidential republic New constitution adopted 1961 1963 Presidential system Referendum Burma (present-day Myanmar) 1948 1962 Military dictatorship 1962 Burmese coup d'état Chile 1891 1924 Military junta 1924 Chilean coup d'état 1925 1925 Presidential system New constitution Republic of China 1947 1972 (de facto) Presidential system Constitution suspended The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in mainland China. 1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary) Semi-presidential system Additional articles of the Constitution adopted First Czechoslovak Republic 1920 1939 Munich agreement Third Czechoslovak Republic 1945 1948 One-party parliamentary republic Coup d'état Fourth Czechoslovak Republic 1948 1989 Multi-party parliamentary republic Velvet Revolution One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia Fifth Czechoslovak Republic 1989 1992 State dissolved Velvet Divorce State of East Indonesia 1946 1950 State dissolved Merged to the Republic of Indonesia First Republic of Estonia 1920 1934 One-party parliamentary republic 1934 Estonian coup d'état In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. 1934 1938 One-party presidential republic New constitution adopted French Third Republic 1870 1940 Puppet state World War II German occupation French Fourth Republic 1946 1958 New constitution adopted 1918 1921 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia 1921 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Georgia Guyana 1970 1980 Assembly-independent republic New constitution adopted Hungary 1946 1949 One-party state Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary 1945 1959 Presidential system Presidential constitution reinstated 1948 1996 Semi-parliamentary system Constitutional amendment 2008 2013 Presidential system New constitution and elections A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013 The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013. Second Republic of Korea 1960 1961 Military junta 16 May coup 1936 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Kazakhstan 1936 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Kirghizia Kyrgyzstan 2010 2021 Presidential republic Referendum The 2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a de facto semi-presidential republic, with the President retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence.^[33] First Republic of Latvia 1922 1934 One-party parliamentary republic 1934 Latvian coup d'état In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. 1934 1940 State dissolved World War II Soviet occupation First Republic of Lithuania 1920 1926 One-party state 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. Lithuania 1990 1992 Multi-party semi-presidential republic New constitution adopted In February 1993, Lithuania holds its first presidential election since the state re-established. (present-day Moldova) 1940 1990 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Moldavia 1963 1966 Coup d'état Pakistan 1956 1958 Military dictatorship 1958 Pakistani coup d'état 1973 1978 1977 Pakistani coup d'état 1997 1999 2002 2003 Assembly-independent republic Constitutional amendment Second Polish Republic 1919 1935 Presidential system New constitution adopted First Portuguese Republic 1911 1926 Military dictatorship (which led in 1933 to the Estado Novo 28 May coup First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic) 1899 1901 Military dictatorship (De facto United States Colony) Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces Fourth Philippine Republic 1973 1981 Semi-presidential system (de facto Military dictatorship under Martial Law between 1972 and 1986.) Constitutional amendment Republic of the Congo 1960 1965 Military dictatorship (De facto one-party state) 1965 Congolese coup d'état 1970 1979 Parliamentary system Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Political rights were restricted to the white minority 1917 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Referendum 1922 1990 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989 One-party system under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union First Spanish Republic 1873 1874 Constitutional monarchy Restoration of the monarchy Second Spanish Republic 1931 1939 One-party state (which declared itself a constitutional monarchy in 1947) Coup d'état Suriname 1975 1987 Assembly-independent republic New constitution adopted 1972 1978 Semi-presidential system New constitution adopted Syrian Republic 1930 1958 State dissolved Creation of the United Arab Republic Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system Syrian Arab Republic 1961 1963 One-party presidential system 1963 Syrian coup d'état Transvaal Republic 1852 1902 Colony of the British Empire Second Boer War 1929 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Tajikistan Turkey 1923 2018 Presidential system Referendum 1925 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Turkmenistan 1963 1966 One-party state Suspension of the constitution 1917 1918 Client state 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état 1918 1919 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic 1921 State dissolved Treaty of Riga 1919 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Ukraine 1924 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Uzbekistan 1945 1953 Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency< --under the original 1946 constitution, the head of state and prime minister were separate posts. They were merged into one in 1953--> Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Yugoslavia 1979 1979 Dependent territory Reversion to Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe 1980 1987 Presidential system Constitutional amendment Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency Country Became a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency Status changed width=300px Changed to Reason for change Notes Gambia 1970 1982 Presidential system Constitutional amendment The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982. Kenya 1964 2008 Full parliamentary system Coalition and power-sharing Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections. A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013. 1953 1963 Assembly-independent republic< --under the 1946 constitution, as amended in 1953, the President could be removed by the Assembly with a simple majority. However, under the 1963 constitution the President was irremovable.--> New constitution One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia Assembly-independent systems Country Became an assembly- independent republic Status changed width=300px Changed to Reason for change Notes First Republic of Ghana 1960 1966 Military dictatorship (Which led to the fully parliamentary Second Republic of Ghana) Coup d'état Pakistan 1985 1997 Full parliamentary republic Constitutional amendment 2003 2010 Constitutional amendment 1992 2000 Semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment 1962 1964 State dissolved Creation of the United Republic of Tanzania Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system 1963 1980 Directorial republic New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia The change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980. Directorial systems 1980 1992 — Breakup of Yugoslavia One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia See also List of countries by system of government Constitutional monarchy Parliamentary system Republic Republicanism Semi-presidential system Semi-parliamentary system References

Notes and References

1. News: Twomey . Anne . Anne Twomey (academic) . Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister . en . The Conversation . 18 October 2018.
2. News: The President's Role . The Times of India . 18 October 2018.
3. Book: Parliamentary versus presidential government. 978-0-19-878044-1. Oxford University Press. Arend Lijphart. 1992.
4. Changed after the 2015 referendum.
5. Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.
6. The Constitution of the Republic of China went into effect on 25 December 1947 as the Chinese Civil War was underway. On 1 October 1949, the Kuomintang-led Republic of China (ROC) was succeeded in Mainland China by the People's Republic of China, a single-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party. The ROC government was then confined to the island of Taiwan from 7 December. The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which established direct presidential elections since 1996.
7. Under the Additional Articles, the Control Yuan ceased to be a parliamentary chamber in 1993 and the National Assembly was dissolved in 2005 leaving the Legislative Yuan as the unicameral chamber. Functions of the National Assembly were transferred to the Legislative Yuan and nationwide referendums. According to Judicial Yuan Interpretation no. 76, Shall the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan be considered en masse as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations? issued on May 3, 1957: The Constitution was enacted according to the exhortation of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen. In addition to the National Assembly, five Yuans have been established, the concept of which is not really analogous to the separation of powers system. The National Assembly representing all the nationals exercises the political power, the Legislative Yuan is the highest legislative institution of the nation and the Control Yuan is the highest monitoring institution of the nation. All of them are composed of representatives or members that are directly or indirectly elected by the people. Their functions and powers are similar to those important powers exercised by the parliaments of democratic nations. Although some of their approaches to the exercise of power, such as a regular annual assembly, quorum and resolution by the majority are not the same as those of parliaments of democratic nations, the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan, from the perspective of the nature of their statuses and functions in the Constitution, should be considered as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations.
8. Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.
9. Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008), he quotes Nousiainen . Jaakko . From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland . . 24 . 2 . 95–109 . 10.1111/1467-9477.00048 . June 2001 . as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.
10. News: Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff . The Associated Press . The New York Times . 3 January 2019 . 29 November 2018.
11. Web site: Art 54 GG - Einzelnorm . 2023-09-20 . www.gesetze-im-internet.de.
12. Web site: Zusammensetzung des Bundesrates . 2023-09-20 . Bundesrat . de.
13. In the case of the former West German states, including former West Berlin, the previous one-party state is Nazi Germany, but in the case of the New Länder and former East Berlin it is East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990.
14. Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.
15. The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.
16. Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
17. Web site: Malta: Heads of State: 1964-1974. Archontology.org. 18 February 2018.
18. Web site: British Monarch's Titles: 1867-2018. Archontology.org. 18 February 2018.
19. Web site: Mauritius: Heads of State: 1968-1992. Archontology.org. 18 February 2018.
20. Book: The Statesman's Year-Book 1984-85. Paxton. John. 29. Palgrave Macmillan. 1984. 18 February 2018. 978-0-333-34731-7.
21. http://constitution.org.np/userfiles/constitution%20of%20nepal%202072-en.pdf Constitution of Nepal
22. Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.
23. Web site: Kiran Khalid. Pakistan lawmakers approve weakening of presidential powers . CNN. 9 April 2010 . 14 April 2010.
24. Web site: '18th Amendment to restore Constitution' . 11 April 2010 . Nation.com.pk . 14 April 2010 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20100414123429/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Regional/Lahore/11-Apr-2010/18th-Amendment-to-restore-Constitution . 14 April 2010 .
25. Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.
26. Web site: Trinidad and Tobago: Heads of State: 1962-1976. Archontology.org. 18 February 2018.
27. Web site: 2009-04-16 . Parliament of Kiribati - Constitution . 2023-08-25 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090416024522/http://www.parliament.gov.ki/constitution.html . 2009-04-16 .
28. Every list of candidates for Parliament must also have a candidate for President, and the having the most votes automatically has its candidate elected President
29. Web site: South Africa: Heads of State: 1910-1961. Archontology.org. 18 February 2018.
30. Web site: South Africa returns to the Commonwealth fold. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/south-africa-returns-to-the-commonwealth-fold-1419686.html . 2022-05-25 . subscription . live. Carlin. John. The Independent. 31 May 1994. 18 February 2018.
31. News: Secession Talked by Some Anti-Republicans. Saskatoon Star-Phoenix. 11 October 1960. 18 February 2018.
32. Web site: Executive . 2023-08-25 . www.gov.fm . 8 March 2021 . en-gb.
33. Web site: Esengeldiev . Almaz . Kyrgyzstan's 2016 Constitutional Referendum . 2023-10-16 . Freedom House . en.