Papuan languages explained

Papuan
Region:Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, East Timor
Familycolor:papuan
Acceptance:geographic
Family:not genetically related
Map:File:Area of Papuan languages.svg
Mapcaption:The historical distribution of the Papuan languages, in red. Tan is Austronesian and grey the historical range of Australian languages.

The Papuan languages are the non-Austronesian languages spoken on the western Pacific island of New Guinea, as well as neighbouring islands in Indonesia, Solomon Islands, and East Timor.[1] It is a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a genetic relationship.

New Guinea is the most linguistically diverse region in the world. Besides the Austronesian languages, there arguably are some 800 languages divided into perhaps sixty small language families, with unclear relationships to each other or to any other languages, plus many language isolates. The majority of the Papuan languages are spoken on the island of New Guinea, with a number spoken in the Bismarck Archipelago, Bougainville Island and the Solomon Islands to the east, and in Halmahera, Timor and the Alor archipelago to the west. The westernmost language, Tambora in Sumbawa, is extinct. One Papuan language, Meriam, is spoken within the national borders of Australia, in the eastern Torres Strait.

Several languages of Flores, Sumba, and other islands of eastern Indonesia are classified as Austronesian but have large numbers of non-Austronesian words in their basic vocabulary and non-Austronesian grammatical features. It has been suggested that these may have originally been non-Austronesian languages that have borrowed nearly all of their vocabulary from neighboring Austronesian languages, but no connection with the Papuan languages of Timor has been found. In general, the Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages are marked by a significant historical Papuan influence, lexically, grammatically, and phonologically, and this is responsible for much of the diversity of the Austronesian language family.

Concept

The "Papuan languages" are a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a genetic relationship. The concept of Papuan (non-Austronesian) speaking Melanesians as distinct from Austronesian-speaking Melanesians was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1892.

In accordance with William A. Foley (1986):

Speaker numbers

Most Papuan languages are spoken by hundreds to thousands of people; the most populous are found in the New Guinea Highlands, where a few exceed a hundred thousand. These include Western Dani (180,000 in 1993) and Ekari (100,000 reported 1985) in the western (Indonesian) highlands, and Enga (230,000 in 2000), Huli (150,000 reported 2011), and Melpa (130,000 reported 1991) in the eastern (PNG) highlands. To the west of New Guinea, the largest languages are Makasae in East Timor (100,000 in 2010) and Galela in Halmahera (80,000 reported 1990). To the east, Terei (27,000 reported 2003) and Naasioi (20,000 reported 2007) are spoken on Bougainville.

History of classification

Although there has been relatively little study of these languages compared with the Austronesian family, there have been three preliminary attempts at large-scale genealogical classification, by Joseph Greenberg, Stephen Wurm, and Malcolm Ross. The largest family posited for the Papuan region is the Trans–New Guinea phylum, consisting of the majority of Papuan languages and running mainly along the highlands of New Guinea. The various high-level families may represent distinct migrations into New Guinea, presumably from the west.[2] Since perhaps only a quarter of Papuan languages have been studied in detail, linguists' understanding of the relationships between them will continue to be revised.

Statistical analyses designed to pick up signals too faint to be detected by the comparative method, though of disputed validity, suggest five major Papuan stocks (roughly Trans–New Guinea, West, North, East, and South Papuan languages);[3] long-range comparison has also suggested connections between selected languages, but again the methodology is not orthodox in historical linguistics.[4]

The Great Andamanese languages may be related to some western Papuan languages, but are not themselves covered by the term Papuan.

Wurm (1975)

The most widely used classification of Papuan languages is that of Stephen Wurm, listed below with the approximate number of languages in each family in parentheses. This was the scheme used by Ethnologue prior to Ross's classification (below). It is based on very preliminary work, much of it typological, and Wurm himself has stated that he does not expect it to hold up well to scrutiny. Other linguists, including William A. Foley, have suggested that many of Wurm's phyla are based on areal features and structural similarities, and accept only the lowest levels of his classification, most of which he inherited from prior taxonomies. Foley (1986) divides Papuan languages into over sixty small language families, plus a number of isolates. However, more recently Foley has accepted the broad outline if not the details of Wurm's classification, as he and Ross have substantiated a large portion of Wurm's Trans–New Guinea phylum.

According to Ross (see below), the main problem with Wurm's classification is that he did not take contact-induced change into account. For example, several of the main branches of his Trans–New Guinea phylum have no vocabulary in common with other Trans–New Guinea languages, and were classified as Trans–New Guinea because they are similar grammatically. However, there are also many Austronesian languages that are grammatically similar to Trans–New Guinea languages due to the influence of contact and bilingualism. Similarly, several groups that do have substantial basic vocabulary in common with Trans–New Guinea languages are excluded from the phylum because they do not resemble it grammatically.

Wurm believed the Papuan languages arrived in several waves of migration with some of the earlier languages (perhaps including the Sepik–Ramu languages) being related to the Australian languages,[5] a later migration bringing the West Papuan, Torricelli and the East Papuan languages[6] and a third wave bringing the most recent pre-Austronesian migration, the Trans–New Guinea family.

Two of Wurm's isolates have since been linked as the

and since Wurm's time another isolate and two languages belonging to a new family have been discovered,

Foley (2003)

Foley summarized the state of the literature.[7] Besides Trans–New Guinea and families possibly belonging in TNG (see), he accepted the proposals for,

Ross (2005)

Malcolm Ross re-evaluated Wurm's proposal on purely lexical grounds. That is, he looked at shared vocabulary, and especially shared idiosyncrasies analogous to English I and me vs. German ich and mich. The poor state of documentation of Papuan languages restricts this approach largely to pronouns. Nonetheless, Ross believes that he has been able to validate much of Wurm's classification, albeit with revisions to correct for Wurm's partially typological approach. (See Trans–New Guinea languages.) Ethnologue (2009) largely follows Ross.

It has been suggested that the families that appear when comparing pronouns may be due to pronoun borrowing rather than to genealogical relatedness. However, Ross argues that Papuan languages have closed-class pronoun systems, which are resistant to borrowing, and in any case that the massive number of languages with similar pronouns in a family like Trans–New Guinea preclude borrowing as an explanation. Also, he shows that the two cases of alleged pronoun borrowing in New Guinea are simple coincidence, explainable as regular developments from the protolanguages of the families in question: as earlier forms of the languages are reconstructed, their pronouns become less similar, not more. (Ross argues that open-class pronoun systems, where borrowings are common, are found in hierarchical cultures such as those of Southeast Asia and Japan, where pronouns indicate details of relationship and social status rather than simply being grammatical pro-forms as they are in the more egalitarian New Guinea societies.)

Ross has proposed 23 Papuan language families and 9–13 isolates. However, because of his more stringent criteria, he was not able to find enough data to classify all Papuan languages, especially many isolates that have no close relatives to aid in their classification.

Ross also found that the Lower Mamberamo languages (or at least the Warembori language—he had insufficient data on Pauwi) are Austronesian languages that have been heavily transformed by contact with Papuan languages, much as the Takia language has. The Reef Islands – Santa Cruz languages of Wurm's East Papuan phylum were a potential 24th family, but subsequent work has shown them to be highly divergent Austronesian languages as well.

Note that while this classification may be more reliable than past attempts, it is based on a single parameter, pronouns, and therefore must remain tentative. Although pronouns are conservative elements in a language, they are short and utilise a reduced set of the language's phonemic inventory. Both phenomena greatly increase the possibility of chance resemblances, especially when they are not confirmed by lexical similarities.

Language isolatesSorted by location

north Irian:

Sandaun Province

Sepik River

Bismarck Archipelago

Other

Former isolates classified by Ross:

Languages reassigned to the Austronesian family:

Unclassified due to lack of data:

Unaccounted for:

Wichmann (2013)

Søren Wichmann (2013) accepts the following 109 groups as coherent Papuan families, based on computational analyses performed by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP) combined with Harald Hammarström's (2012) classification.[8] Some of the groups could turn out to be related to each other, but Wichmann (2013) lists them as separate groups pending further research.

9 families have been broken up into separate groups in Wichmann's (2013) classification, which are:

  1. West Timor-Alor-Pantar / East Timor-Bunaq
  2. South Bougainville
  3. Wiru
  4. Namla-Tofanma
  5. ex-Pauwasi-1 (Western Pauwasi)
  6. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-1 (Asmat–Kamoro)
  7. Mombum
  8. Marindic
  9. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-2 (Awyu–Dumut)
  10. Inland Gulf
  11. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-3 (Oksapmin)
  12. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-4 (Ok)
  13. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-5 (Finisterre-Huon)
  14. Goilalan
  15. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-6 (Chimbu–Wahgi)
  16. Kamula / Awin–Pa / Bosavi / East Strickland
  17. ex-Dibiyaso-Doso-Turumsa-1 (Dibiyaso)
  18. Angan
  19. Duna-Bogaya
  20. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-7 (Engan)
  21. Sepik / Ndu / Walio
  22. Greater Kwerba / Tor-Orya
  23. Nimboran / Kapauri / Border
  24. Elseng
  25. North Halmahera
  26. Yalë
  27. ex-Dibiyaso-Doso-Turumsa-2 (Doso-Turumsa)
  28. Kwomtari
  29. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-8 (Mek)
  30. ex-Morehead-Wasur-1 (Yey, Nambu)
  31. Hatam-Mansim
  32. Mor
    1. Pahoturi / Eastern Trans-Fly ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-9 (Kainantu-Goroka)
  33. Yareban / Mailuan
  34. Dem
  35. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-10 (Southern Adelbert: Nend, Atemble, Apali, Faita, Anamgura, Mum, Musak, Moresada, Utarmbung, Anam, Paynamar, Sileibi, Wadaginam)
  36. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-11 (Dani)
  37. West Bomberai
  38. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-12 (Wissel Lakes)
  39. Koiarian
  40. Kaki Ae
  41. Moraori
  42. Mawes
  43. Kolopom
  44. Bulaka River
  45. Molof
  46. Yuat-Maramba
  47. Kaure-Narau
  48. Tirio
  49. Kayagar
  50. Suki-Gogodala / Waia / Kiwaian
  51. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-13 (Binanderean + Kowan: Binandere, Baruga, Kowan, Korafe, Suena, Waskia, Zia)
  52. Fasu-East Kutubu
  53. Pawaia-Teberan
  54. Turama-Kikori
  55. North Bougainville
  56. Eleman
  57. Mairasi
  58. Touo
  59. ex-Kwalean-1 (Humene-Uare)
  60. Tanahmerah
  61. Savosavo
  62. Bilua
  63. Manubaran
  64. Kuot
  65. Burmeso
  66. Amto-Musan / Left May / Busa
  67. ex-Sentanic-1 (Sowari)
  68. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-1 (Ap Ma)
  69. Taiap
  70. ex-Sko-1 (I'saka, Skou, Vanimo, Wutung; Dusur, Leitre)
  71. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-2 (Nor–Pondo: Angoram, Chambri, Nor, Kopar, Yimas)
  72. Geelvink Bay
  73. Konda-Yahadian
  74. South Bird's Head family / Inanwatan
  75. Nuclear Torricelli
  76. Urim
  77. Ata
  78. Monumbo
  79. ex-Sentanic-2 (Sentani proper)
  80. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-3 (Banaro)
  81. Yawa
  82. ex-Kwalean-2 (Mulaha)
  83. Lavukaleve
  84. Anem
  85. ex-Morehead-Wasur-2 (Kunja)
  86. Papi
  87. Mpur
  88. Abun / Maybrat / West Bird's Head
  89. Lakes Plain
  90. Pyu
  91. ex-Biksi-1 (Kimki)
  92. ex-Sko-2 (Rawo, Barupu; Poo, Ramo, Sumararo, Womo)
  93. ex-Biksi-2 (Yetfa)
  94. Yeli Dnye
  95. Lepki–Murkim
  96. ex-Pauwasi-2 (Eastern Pauwasi)
  97. East Bird's Head
  98. Kosare
  99. Usku
  100. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-14 (Croisilles)[9]
  101. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-15 (Kobon)
  102. Senagi
  103. Piawi
  104. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-4 (Rao)
  105. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-5 (Kire, Kaian, Aruamu)
  106. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-16 (Croisilles)[10]

An automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller, Velupillai, Wichmann et al. (2013)[11] found lexical similarities among the following language groups. Note that some of these automatically generated groupings are due to chance resemblances.

Palmer (2018)

Bill Palmer et al. (2018) propose 43 independent families and 37 language isolates in the Papuasphere, comprising a total of 862 languages.[12] A total of 80 independent groups are recognized. While Pawley & Hammarström's internal classification of Trans-New Guinea largely resembles a composite of Usher's and Ross' classifications, Palmer et al. do not address the more tentative families that Usher proposes, such as Northwest New Guinea.

The coherence of the South Bird's Head, East Bird's Head, Pauwasi, Kwomtari, and Central Solomons families are uncertain, and hence are marked below as "tentative."[13] [14] [15] [16]

Papuan independent language families (43 families)

Papuan isolates and unclassified languages (37 total)

Bird's Head Peninsula / Bomberai Peninsula (5)
North coast / hinterland (12)
Central West Papua (2)
Sepik-Ramu basin (3)
Gulf of Papua / hinterland (8)
Bismarck Archipelago (6)
Rossel Island (Louisiade Archipelago) (1)

Glottolog 4.0 (2019)

Glottolog 4.0 (2019), based partly on Usher, recognizes 70 independent families and 55 isolates.[17]

Families (70)
Isolates (55)

Usher & Suter (2024)

The following families are identified by Timothy Usher and Edgar Suter in their NewGuineaWorld project:[18]

In addition, poorly attested Karami remains unclassified. Extinct Tambora and the East Papuan languages have not been addressed, except to identify Yele as an Austronesian language.

Greenberg's classification

Joseph Greenberg proposed an Indo-Pacific phylum containing the (Northern) Andamanese languages, all Papuan languages, and the Tasmanian languages, but not the Australian Aboriginal languages. Very few linguists accept his grouping. It is distinct from the Trans–New Guinea phylum of the classifications below.

External relations

Joseph Greenberg proposed that the Andamanese languages (or at least the Great Andamanese languages) off the coast of Burma are related to the Papuan or West Papuan languages. Stephen Wurm stated that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese and the West Papuan and Timor–Alor families "are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity [...] in a number of instances". However, he considered this not evidence of a connection between (Great) Andamanese and Trans - New Guinea, but of a substratum from an earlier migration to New Guinea from the west.

Greenberg also suggested a connection to the Tasmanian languages. However, the Tasmanian peoples were isolated for perhaps 10,000 years, their disappearance wiped out their languages before much was recorded of them, and few linguists expect that they will ever be linked to another language family.

William A. Foley (1986) noted lexical similarities between R. M. W. Dixon's 1980 reconstruction of proto-Australian and the languages of the East New Guinea Highlands. He believed that it was naïve to expect to find a single Papuan or Australian language family when New Guinea and Australia had been a single landmass for most of their human history, having been separated by the Torres Strait only 8000 years ago, and that a deep reconstruction would likely include languages from both. However, Dixon later abandoned his proto-Australian proposal,[19] and Foley's ideas need to be re-evaluated in light of recent research. Wurm also suggested the Sepik–Ramu languages have similarities with the Australian languages, but believed this may be due to a substratum effect,[5] but nevertheless believed that the Australian languages represent a linguistic group that existed in New Guinea before the arrival of the Papuan languages (which he believed arrived in at least two different groups).

Typology

The West Papuan, Lower Mamberamo, and most Torricelli languages are all left-headed, as well as the languages of New Britain and New Ireland. These languages all have SVO word order, with the exception of the language isolate Kuot, which has VSO word order. All other Papuan languages are right-headed.[20]

Tonal Papuan languages include the Sko, Lepki, Kaure, Kembra, Lakes Plain, and Keuw languages.[20]

See also

References

General references

Further reading

Comparative wordlists

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Papuan. www.languagesgulper.com. 2017-10-15.
  2. Wurm 1975
  3. Explaining the Linguistic Diversity of Sahul Using Population Models. Ger. Reesink. Ruth. Singer. Michael. Dunn. November 17, 2009. PLOS Biology. 7. 11. e1000241. 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000241. 19918360. 2770058 . free .
  4. Murray Gell-Mann et al. (2009) "Distant Language Relationship: The Current Perspective", Journal of Language Relationship·Вопросы языкового родства
  5. Book: The Austronesians. Peter. Bellwood. James J.. Fox. Darrell. Tryon. Peter . James J . Darrell . Bellwood . Fox . Tryon . 2006 . ANU Press. 10.22459/A.09.2006 . 9780731521326 . press.anu.edu.au . free .
  6. Book: Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages . 978-0-7007-1197-0 . Moseley . Christopher . 2007. Routledge .
  7. Web site: DELP - Papuan Languages. sydney.edu.au.
  8. Book: Wichmann, Søren . 2013 . http://www.langlxmelanesia.com/wichmann313-386.pdf . A classification of Papuan languages . Hammarström . Harald . Wilco . van den Heuvel . History, contact and classification of Papuan languages . Language and Linguistics in Melanesia . Special Issue 2012 . 313–386 . Port Moresby . Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea .
  9. [ISO 639-3]
  10. [ISO 639-3]
  11. Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013).
  12. Book: Palmer, Bill . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . Language families of the New Guinea Area . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 1–20 . 978-3-11-028642-7.
  13. Book: Foley, William A. . William A. Foley . 2005 . Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu basin . Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples . Canberra . Pacific Linguistics . 0858835622 . 67292782 . Andrew Pawley . Andrew Pawley . Robert Attenborough . Robin Hide . Jack Golson . 109 - 144 .
  14. Book: Holton . Gary . Klamer . Marian . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The Papuan languages of East Nusantara and the Bird’s Head . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 569–640 . 978-3-11-028642-7.
  15. Book: Stebbins . Tonya . Evans . Bethwyn . Terrill . Angela . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The Papuan languages of Island Melanesia . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 775–894 . 978-3-11-028642-7.
  16. Book: Pawley . Andrew . Hammarström . Harald . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The Trans New Guinea family . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 21–196 . 978-3-11-028642-7.
  17. Web site: Glottolog . 4.0 . Hammarström . Harald . Forkel . Robert . Haspelmath . Martin . 2019 . Jena . Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  18. Usher, Timothy and Edgar Suter. NewGuineaWorld.
  19. Book: Dixon, R. M. W. . 2002 . Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development . Cambridge University Press . 0-521-47378-0 .
  20. Book: Foley, William A. . William A. Foley . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The morphosyntactic typology of Papuan languages . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 895–938 . 978-3-11-028642-7.

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