| Northern American English | |
| Also Known As: | Northern U.S. English |
| Region: | Northern United States |
| Familycolor: | Indo-European |
| Fam2: | Germanic |
| Fam3: | West Germanic |
| Fam4: | Ingvaeonic |
| Fam5: | Anglo–Frisian |
| Fam6: | Anglic |
| Fam7: | English |
| Fam8: | North American English |
| Fam9: | American English |
| Ancestor: | Old English |
| Ancestor2: | Middle English |
| Ancestor3: | Early Modern English |
| Map: | Northern Cities Vowel Shift.svg |
| Mapcaption: | 21st century research unites the brown region of this map as a Northern U.S. superdialect region. Notice that the Northwest and much of New England are not included. |
| Notice: | IPA |
| Glotto: | nort3316 |
| Glottorefname: | Northern North American English |
Northern American English or Northern U.S. English (also, Northern AmE) is a class of historically related American English dialects, spoken by predominantly white Americans,[1] in much of the Great Lakes region and some of the Northeast region within the United States. The North as a superdialect region is best documented by the 2006 Atlas of North American English (ANAE) in the greater metropolitan areas of Connecticut, Western Massachusetts, Western and Central New York, Northwestern New Jersey, Northeastern Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio, Northern Indiana, Northern Illinois, Northeastern Nebraska, and Eastern South Dakota, plus among certain demographics or areas within Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Vermont, and New York's Hudson Valley.[2] The ANAE describes that the North, at its core, consists of the Inland Northern dialect (in the eastern Great Lakes region) and Southwestern New England dialect.[3]
The ANAE argues that, though geographically located in the Northern United States, current-day New York City, Eastern New England, Northwestern U.S., and some Upper Midwestern accents do not fit under the Northern U.S. accent spectrum, or only marginally. Each has one or more phonological characteristics that disqualifies them or, for the latter two, exhibit too much internal variation to classify definitively. Meanwhile, Central and Western Canadian English is presumed to have originated, but branched off, from Northern U.S. English within the past two or three centuries.[4] [5]
Most broadly, the ANAE classifies Northern U.S. accents as rhotic, distinguished from Southern U.S. accents by retaining pronounced as //aɪ// as a diphthong (unlike the South, which commonly monophthongizes this sound) and from Western U.S. and Canadian accents by mostly preserving the distinction between the /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ sounds in words like cot versus caught[6] (though the latter feature appears to be changing among the younger generations).
In the very early 20th century, a generic Northern U.S. accent was the basis for the term "General American", though regional accents have now since developed in some areas of the North.[7] [8]
The ANAE defines a Northern linguistic super-region of American English dialects as having:
The Northern Cities Vowel Shift is a series of sound changes in the North that covers a large area from western New York State west through the U.S. Great Lakes region and some of the Upper Midwest.[10]
The following pronunciation variants used more strongly in this region than anywhere else in the country:[11]
The North has historically been one of the last U.S. regions to maintain the distinction between /ɔr/ and /oʊr/, in which words like horse and hoarse or war and wore, for example, are not homophones; however, the merger of the two has quickly spread throughout the North. The vowel pronounced as /link/ was once a common Northern U.S. sound in the word creek, but this has largely given way to the vowel pronounced as /link/, as in the rest of the country.
The North is reported as uniquely or most strongly using certain words:[11]
A Northeastern Corridor of the United States follows the Atlantic coast, comprising all the dialects of New England, Greater New York City, and Greater Philadelphia (including adjacent areas of New Jersey), sometimes even classified as extending to Greater Baltimore, Washington D.C., and New York's Hudson Valley. This large region, despite being home to numerous different dialects and accents, constitutes a huge area unified in certain linguistic respects, including particular notable vocabulary and phonemic incidence (that is, basic units of sound that can distinguish certain words).
These phonemic variants in certain words are particularly correlated with the American Northeast (with the more common variants nationwide given in parentheses):[11]
The Northeast tends to retain a contrastive /ɔ/ vowel (in words like all, caught, flaw, loss, thought, etc.): specifically, this is realized as pronounced as /[ɒ~ɔə]/. Northern New England and many younger speakers do not retain this vowel, however. Non-rhoticity or "r"-dropping is variable in Eastern New England and New York City, though gradually declining.
Terms common or even usual to the whole Northeast include:[11]
See main article: Mid-Atlantic accent. A cultivated or elite Northeastern U.S. accent, sometimes known as a "Boston Brahmin accent" within Boston, was once associated with members of upper-class Northeastern (largely, New England and New York City) families in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The documentary "American Tongues" in 1988 interviewed two Brahmin speakers who estimate that were about 1000 of them left. Notable example speakers included many members of the Kennedy family born in this time period including President John F. Kennedy, whose accent is not an ordinary Boston accent so much as a "tony Harvard accent".[19] This accent included non-rhoticity (and even, variably, a non-rhotic pronunciation of), a resistance to the cot-caught merger, and a resistance to the Mary-marry-merry merger. Variably, speakers dipped into other then-prestigious features, such as the split (pronounced as /[æ]/ versus pronounced as /[a]/), no tensing, and a backed pronunciation of, though some New England speakers pronounced it more fronted. This accent corresponds in its time-frame and in much of its sound with a cultivated transatlantic accent promoted in theatrical elocution courses in the same era.[20]
See main article: Inland Northern American English. The recent Northern cities vowel shift, beginning only in the twentieth century, now affects much of the North away from the Atlantic coast, occurring specifically at its geographic center: the Great Lakes region. It is therefore a defining feature of the Inland North dialect (most notably spoken in Chicago, Detroit, and western New York State). The vowel shift's generating conditions are also present in some Western New England English;[21] otherwise, however, this vowel shift is not occurring in the Northeastern United States.
See main article: North-Central American English and Pacific Northwest English.
North-Central American or Upper Midwestern English, based around Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, and North Dakota, may show some elements of the Northern cities vowel shift and the ANAE classifies it as a transitional dialect between the Inland North, Canada, and the West. Many Upper Midwesterners have a full cot-caught merger, however, which disqualifies this dialect from the ANAE's traditional definition for a "Northern" dialect region in the United States.
Northwestern American English similarly does not qualify under the ANAE definition, instead falling broadly under Western American English, not Northern. Northwestern accents are not yet identified by linguists as settling into a singular stable variety; its speakers share major commonalities with both Californian and Canadian accents.