Nontrinitarianism Explained

Nontrinitarianism is a form of Christianity that rejects the mainstream Christian theology of the Trinity—the belief that God is three distinct hypostases or persons who are coeternal, coequal, and indivisibly united in one being, or essence (from the Ancient Greek). Certain religious groups that emerged during the Protestant Reformation have historically been known as antitrinitarian.

According to churches that consider the decisions of ecumenical councils final, trinitarianism was definitively declared to be Christian doctrine at the 4th-century ecumenical councils,[1] [2] that of the First Council of Nicaea (325), which declared the full divinity of the Son,[3] and the First Council of Constantinople (381), which declared the divinity of the Holy Spirit.[4]

In terms of number of adherents, nontrinitarian denominations comprise a small minority of modern Christians. After the denominations in the Oneness Pentecostal movement, the largest nontrinitarian Christian denominations are the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses,, and . There are a number of other smaller groups, including Christadelphians, Church of the Blessed Hope, Christian Scientists, Dawn Bible Students, Living Church of God, Assemblies of Yahweh, Members Church of God International, Unitarian Christians, Unitarian Universalist Christians, The Way International, the Philadelphia Church of God, The Church of God International, the United Church of God, Church of God General Conference, Restored Church of God, Christian Disciples Church, and Church of God of the Faith of Abraham.[5]

Nontrinitarian views differ widely on the nature of God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit. Various nontrinitarian philosophies, such as adoptionism and monarchianism, existed prior to the codification of the Trinity doctrine in AD 325, 381, and 431, at the Councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus.[6] Nontrinitarianism was later renewed by Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Unitarian movement during the Protestant Reformation, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18thcentury, and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19thcentury.

The doctrine of the Trinity, as held in mainstream Christianity, is not present in the other major monotheistic Abrahamic religions.

Beliefs

Christian apologists and other Church Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, having adopted and formulated the Logos Christology, considered the Son of God as the instrument used by the supreme God, the Father, to bring the creation into existence. Justin Martyr, Theophilus of Antioch, Hippolytus of Rome and Tertullian in particular state that the internal Logos of God (Gr. Logos endiathetos, Lat.)—his impersonal divine reason—was begotten as Logos uttered (Gr. Logos prophorikos, Lat.), the Word personified, becoming an actual person to be used for the purpose of creation.[7]

The Encyclopædia Britannica (11th edition) states: "to some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared inconsistent with the unity of God. ... they therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ, not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by whom all else was created. ... [this] view in the early Church long contended with the orthodox doctrine."[8] Although the Trinitarian view became the orthodox doctrine in mainstream Christianity, variations of the nontrinitarian view are still held by a relatively small number of Christian groups and denominations.

Various views exist regarding the relationships between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

Modern Christian groups

History

See main article: History of Unitarianism and List of schisms in Christianity.

Early Christianity

See also: Caesaropapism. Although nontrinitarian beliefs continued and were dominant among some peoples—for example, the Lombards, Ostrogoths, Visigoths and Vandals—for hundreds of years, the Trinity doctrine eventually gained prominence in the Roman Empire. Nontrinitarians typically argue that early nontrinitarian beliefs, such as Arianism, were systematically suppressed (often to the point of death).[43] After the First Council of Nicaea, Roman Emperor Constantine I issued an edict against Arius' writings, which included systematic book burning.[44] In spite of the decree, Constantine ordered the readmission of Arius to the church, removed the bishops (including Athanasius) who upheld the teaching of Nicaea,[45] allowed Arianism to grow within the Empire and to spread to Germanic tribes on the frontier,[46] and was himself baptized by an Arian bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia.[47] His successors as Christian emperors promoted Arianism, until Theodosius I came to the throne in 379 and supported Nicene Christianity.

The Easter letter that Athanasius issued in 367, when the Eastern Empire was ruled by the Arian Emperor Valens, specified the books that belong to the Old Testament and the New Testament, together with seven other books to be read "for instruction in the word of godliness"; it also excluded what Athanasius called apocryphal writings, falsely presented as ancient.[48] Elaine Pagels writes: "In AD 367, Athanasius, the zealous bishop of Alexandria... issued an Easter letter in which he demanded that Egyptian monks destroy all such unacceptable writings, except for those he specifically listed as 'acceptable' even 'canonical'—a list that constitutes the present 'New Testament'".[49] [50]

Nontrinitarians see the Nicene Creed and the results of the Council of Chalcedon as essentially political documents, resulting from the subordination of true doctrine to state interests by leaders of the Catholic Church, so that the church became, in their view, an extension of the Roman Empire. Nontrinitarians (both Modalists and Unitarians) assert that Athanasius and others at Nicaea adopted Greek Platonic philosophy and concepts, and incorporated them in their views of God and Christ.[51]

The author H. G. Wells, later famous for his contribution to science-fiction, wrote in The Outline of History: "We shall see presently how later on all Christendom was torn by disputes about the Trinity. There is no evidence that the apostles of Jesus ever heard of the Trinity, at any rate from him."[52]

The question of why such a central doctrine to the Christian faith would never have been explicitly stated in scripture or taught in detail by Jesus himself was sufficiently important to 16th century historical figures such as Michael Servetus to lead them to argue the question. The Geneva City Council, in accord with the judgment of the cantons of Zürich, Bern, Basel, and Schaffhausen, condemned Servetus to be burned at the stake for this and his opposition to infant baptism.

The Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics describes the five stages that led to the formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity:[53]

  1. The acceptance of the pre-human existence of Jesus as the (middle-platonic) Logos, namely, as the medium between the transcendent sovereign God and the created cosmos. The doctrine of Logos was accepted by the Apologists and by other Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, such as Justin the Martyr, Hippolytus, Tertullian, Ireneus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Lactantius, and in the 4th century by Arius;
  2. The doctrine of the timeless generation of the Son from the Father as it was articulated by Origen in his effort to support the ontological immutability of God, that he is ever-being a father and a creator. The doctrine of the timeless generation was adopted by Athanasius of Alexandria;
  3. The acceptance of the idea that the son of God is of the same transcendent nature (homoousios) as his father. This position was declared in the Nicene Creed, which specifically states the son of God is as immutable as his father;
  4. The acceptance that the Holy Spirit also has ontological equality as a third person in a divine Trinity and the final Trinitarian terminology by the teachings of the Cappadocian Fathers;
  5. The addition of the Filioque to the Nicene Creed, as accepted by the Roman Catholic Church.

Following the Reformation

By 1530, following the Protestant Reformation, and the German Peasants' War of 1524–1525, large areas of Northern Europe were Protestant, and forms of nontrinitarianism began to surface among some "Radical Reformation" groups, particularly Anabaptists. The first recorded English antitrinitarian was John Assheton (1548), an Anglican priest. The Italian Anabaptist "Council of Venice" (1550) and the trial of Michael Servetus (1553) marked the clear emergence of markedly antitrinitarian Protestants. Though the only organised nontrinitarian churches were the Polish Brethren who split from the Calvinists (1565, expelled from Poland 1658), and the Unitarian Church of Transylvania (founded 1568). Nonconformists, Dissenters and Latitudinarians in Britain were often Arians or Unitarians, and the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813 allowed nontrinitarian worship in Britain. In America, Arian and Unitarian views were also found among some Millennialist and Adventist groups, though the Unitarian Church itself began to decline in numbers and influence after the 1870s.[54] [55]

Points of dissent

Nontrinitarian Christians with Arian or Semi-Arian views contend that the weight of scriptural evidence supports Subordinationism, the Son's total submission to the Father, and God's paternal supremacy over the Son in every aspect. They acknowledge the Son's high rank at God's right hand, but teach that the Father is still greater than the Son in all things.

While acknowledging that the Father, Son, and Spirit are essential in creation and salvation, they argue that that in itself does not confirm that the three are each co-equal or co-eternal. They also affirm that God is only explicitly identified as "one" in the Bible, and that the doctrine of the Trinity, which word literally meaning a set of three, ascribes a co-equal threeness to the being of the infinite God that is not explicitly scriptural.

Scriptural support

Critics of the Trinity doctrine argue that, for a teaching described as fundamental, it lacks direct scriptural support. Proponents of the doctrine assert that although the doctrine is not stated directly in the New Testament, it is instead an interpretation of elements contained therein that imply the doctrine that was later formulated in the 4th century.

William Barclay, a Church of Scotland minister, stated that:

The New Catholic Encyclopedia states:

Similarly, Encyclopedia Encarta states:

Encyclopædia Britannica says:

The Anchor Bible Dictionary states:

Catholic historian Joseph F. Kelly, speaking of legitimate theological development, writes:

Questions about co-equal deity of Jesus

American Catholic priest and Trinitarian, R.E. Brown (1928–1988), wrote a journal article that sorted relevant biblical verses into three classes. He described the following block as "texts that seem to imply that the title 'God' was not used for Jesus" and are "negative evidence which is often somewhat neglected in Catholic treatments of the subject":[56]

he lists these as "texts where, by reason of textual variants or syntax, the use of 'God' for Jesus is dubious":[56]

and only finds the following three as "texts where clearly Jesus is called God":[56]

The Septuagint translate (Elohim) as θεος (Theos).[57] At Deuteronomy 6:4 (the Shema Yisrael, quoted by Jesus at), the plural form of the Hebrew word "God" (Elohim) is used, generally understood to denote majesty, excellence, and the superlative.[58] It has been stated that in the original Greek in Mark 12:29, there are no "plural modifiers" in that Greek word there for "one" (heis), but that in Mark 12 it is simply a masculine singular "one". And that because of that, there is no valid reason to believe that the Hebrew word for "one" in Deuteronomy 6 (echad) was necessarily a "plural one", rather than just simply numerical "one".[59] At Deuteronomy 6:4, the Tetragrammaton appears twice in this verse, leading Jehovah's Witnesses and certain Jewish scholars to conclude that belief in a singular (and therefore indivisible) supremely powerful God is essential to the Shema.[60] [61]

Matthew 26:39

In 26:39 KJV Jesus prays with a distinction between God and himself, "O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me: nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt.".

John 1:1

In there is a distinction between God and the Logos. Non-trinitarians claim a mistranslation of the second part of John 1:1 which, when literally translated word-for-word reads "and the word [logos] was with the God [ho theos]." Trinitarians contend that the third part of the verse (John 1:1c) translates as "and the Word was God", pointing to a distinction as subjects between God and the Logos but an equivalence in nature.[62] [63] [64] [65] Some nontrinitarians assert that the Koine Greek (kai theos ên ho logos) should be translated as "and a God was the Word" (or "and the Word was a god"). Based on their contention that the article of theos is anarthrous, lacking a definite article, they believe the verse refers to Jesus' pre-human existence as "a god" or a divine one as distinct from "the God". Nontrinitarians also contend that the author of John's gospel could have written kai ho theos ên ho logos ("and the Word was the God") if that were his intended meaning.[66] [67]

John 10:30

2 John – Nontrinitarians such as Arians believe that when Jesus said, "I and the Father are one," he did not mean that they were actually "one substance", or "one God", or co-equal and co-eternal, but rather that he and the Father have a "unity of purpose", and that the context indicates that Jesus was saying that they were "one" in pastoral work. The point being that the Father and the Son were united in the divine work of saving the 'sheep'. Nontrinitarian Christians also cite 2 John,[68] wherein Jesus prayed regarding his disciples: "That they may all be one, as you, Father, are in me, and I in you, that they may be in us," adding "that they may be one even as we are one". They argue that the same Greek word (hen) for "one" throughout John 17 indicates that Jesus did not expect for his followers to literally become a single Being, or "one in substance", with each other, or with God, and therefore that Jesus also did not expect his hearers to think that he and God the Father were one entity either.[68]

John 10:33

While Trinitarians often use John 10:33 as proof for the divinity of Jesus, unitarian critics argue that the Pharisees accusing Jesus of making himself God shouldn't be the center of attention, when reading this passage. Instead, they emphasize that Jesus' response to the accusations in John 10:34-36 is of much greater concern. In fact, he refuses to be God but instead claims to be the son of God and makes a direct reference to Psalms 82:6 in which God calls his children Gods without taking away from his own glory.[69]

John 20:28–29

–29 – "And Thomas answered and said to Him, "My Lord and my God!" Jesus said to him, "Thomas, because you have seen Me, you have believed. Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed"". Since Thomas called Jesus God, Jesus's statement appears to endorse Thomas's assertion. Nontrinitarians sometimes respond that it is plausible that Thomas is addressing the Lord Jesus and then the Father. Another possible answer is that Jesus himself said, "Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?" (2 John) referring to Psalm 82:6–8. The word "gods" in verse6 and "God" in verse8 is the same Hebrew word "'elohim",[70] which means, "gods in the ordinary sense; but specifically used (in the plural thus, especially with the article) of the supreme God; occasionally applied by way of deference to magistrates; and sometimes as a superlative",[71] and can also refer to powers and potentates, in general, or as "God, god, gods, rulers, judges or angels",[70] and as "divine ones, goddess, godlike one".[72] Therefore, the point being that Jesus was a power or mighty one to the Apostles, as the resurrected Messiah, and as the reflection of God the Father.

2 Corinthians 13:14

– "The Grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the sharing in the Holy Spirit be with all of you." It is argued by Trinitarians that the appearance of "Father, Son, and Spirit" together in Paul's prayer for Grace on all believers, and are considered essential for salvation, that the verse is consistent with a triune godhead. Nontrinitarians such as Arians reply that they do not disagree that all three are necessary for salvation and grace, but argue that the passage does not explicitly say that all three are co-equal or co-eternal.[73]

Philippians 2:5–6

–6 – "Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, [or "which was also in Christ Jesus",] who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped" (ESV). The word translated in the English Standard Version as "a thing to be grasped" is ἁρπαγμόν. Other translations of the word are indicated in the Holman Christian Standard Bible: "Make your own attitude that of Christ Jesus, who, existing in the form of God, did not consider equality with God as something to be used for His own advantage" [or "to be grasped", or "to be held on to"].[74] The King James Version has: "Let this mind be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus: Who, being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal with God."[75] Nontrinitarians make the argument that the passage is simply saying that Christ did not consider equality with God something graspable, and that better English translations make it clearer.[76] Another point is that the original Greek had no definite article for "form of God", which would mean "a form of divinity", and also that the term "morphe" for "form" in Koine Greek would simply mean a general external quality or station, but not necessarily the absolute thing itself, and therefore they argue that the passage does not explicitly teach either co-equality, co-eternity, or consubstantiality.[77] [78]

Hebrews 9:14

2 Hebrews – "How much more will the Blood of Christ, who through an eternal Spirit, offered himself without blemish to God, cleanse our consciences from dead works, that we may render sacred service to the living God?" Most nontrinitarians agree that the Holy Spirit had no beginning, but believe it is not an actual person. Nontrinitarians contend that it is obvious that God the Father in the passage is the One who is ultimately reached, and therefore is greater than the other two entities, and that a "co-equal trinity" is not explicitly taught in the passage, but only inferred.[79]

Terminology

"The term 'Trinity' is not in the Bible",[80] and some nontrinitarians use this as an argument to state that the doctrine of the Trinity relies on non-biblical terminology, and that the number three is never clearly associated with God necessarily, other than within the Comma Johanneum which is of spurious or disputed authenticity. They argue that the only number clearly unambiguously ascribed to God in the Bible is one, and that the Trinity, literally meaning three-in-one, ascribes a co-equal threeness to God that is not explicitly biblical.

Nontrinitarians cite other examples of terms or phrases not found in the Bible; multiple "persons" in relation to God, the terms "God the Son", "God-Man", "God the Holy Spirit", "eternal Son", and "eternally begotten". While the Trinitarian term hypostasis is found in the Bible, it is used only once in reference to God[81] where it states that Jesus is the express image of God's person. The Bible does not explicitly use the term in relation to the Holy Spirit nor explicitly mentions the Son having a distinct hypostasis from the Father.

The First Council of Nicaea included in its Creed the major term homoousios (of the same essence), which was used also by the Council of Chalcedon to speak of a double consubstantiality of Christ, "consubstantial with the Father as touching his Godhead, and consubstantial with us as touching his manhood".[82] Nontrinitarians accept what Pier Franco Beatrice wrote: "The main thesis of this paper is that homoousios came straight from Constantine's Hermetic background. ... The Plato recalled by Constantine is just a name used to cover precisely the Egyptian and Hermetic theology of the "consubstantiality" of the Logos-Son with the Nous-Father, having recourse to a traditional apologetic argument. In the years of the outbreak of the Arian controversy, Lactantius might have played a decisive role in influencing Constantine's Hermetic interpretation of Plato's theology and consequently the emperor's decision to insert homoousios in the Creed of Nicaea."[83]

Trinitarians see the absence of the actual word "Trinity" and other Trinity-related terms in the Bible as no more significant than the absence in the Bible of the words "monotheism", "omnipotence", "oneness", "Pentecostal", "apostolic", "incarnation" and even "Bible" itself.[84] [85] They maintain that, 'while the word Trinity is not in the Bible, the substance or drift of the doctrine is definitely biblical, if not explicitly than at least implicitly.'[86]

Holy Spirit

See also: Holy Spirit (Christian denominational variations). Nontrinitarian views about the Holy Spirit differ from mainstream Christian doctrine and generally fall into several distinct categories. Most scriptures traditionally used in support of the Trinity refer to the Father and the Son, but not to the Holy Spirit.

Unitarian

Groups with Unitarian theology such as Polish Socinians, the 18th–19th-century Unitarian Church and Christadelphians consider the Holy Spirit to be an aspect of God's power rather than a person.[87] Christadelphians believe that the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's power or character, depending on the context.[88] Similarly, Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Holy Spirit is not an actual person but is God's "active force" that he uses to accomplish his will.[89]

Binitarianism

Groups with Binitarian theology, such as Armstrongites, believe that the Logos and God the Father are co-equal and co-eternal, but they do not believe that the Holy Spirit is an actual person, like the Father and the Son. They believe the Holy Spirit is the Power, Mind, or Character of God, depending on the context. They teach, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe."[90]

Modalist groups

Oneness Pentecostalism, as with other modalist groups, teach that the Holy Spirit is a mode of God, rather than a distinct or separate person in the godhead, and that the Holy Spirit is another name for God the Father. According to Oneness theology, the Holy Spirit is the Father operating in a certain capacity or manifestation. The United Pentecostal Church teaches that there is no personal distinction between God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.[91] [92] [93] The two titles "Father" and "Holy Spirit" (as well as others) are said to not reflect separate "persons" within the Godhead, but rather two different ways in which the one God reveals himself to his creatures. The Oneness view of Bible verses that mention God and his Spirit (e.g. Isaiah 48:16) is that they do not imply two "persons" any more than various scriptural references to a man and his spirit or soul (such as in Luke 12:19) imply two "persons" existing within one body.[94]

Latter-day Saint movement

See also: God in Mormonism. In the LDS Church, the Holy Ghost (usually synonymous with Holy Spirit)[95] is considered to be the third distinct member of the Godhead (Father, Son and Holy Ghost),[96] and to have a body of "spirit",[97] which makes him unlike the Father and the Son who are said to have bodies "as tangible as man's".[98] According to LDS doctrine, the Holy Spirit is believed to be a person,[98] with a body of spirit, able to pervade all worlds.[99]

Latter-day Saints believe that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are part of the Godhead, but that the Father is greater than the Son, and that the Son is greater than the Holy Spirit in position and authority, but not in nature (i.e., they equally share the "God" nature).[99] They teach that the Father, Son, and Spirit are three ontologically separate, self-aware entities who share a common "God" nature distinct from our "human" nature, who are "One God" in the sense of being united (in the same sense that a husband and wife are said to be "one"), similar to Social trinitarianism.

A number of Latter Day Saint sects, most notably the Community of Christ (the second largest Latter Day Saint denomination), the Church of Christ (Temple Lot),[100] and derived groups, follow a traditional Protestant trinitarian theology.

Other groups

The Unity Church interprets the religious terms Father, Son, and Holy Spirit metaphysically, as three aspects of mind action: mind, idea, and expression. They believe this is the process through which all manifestation takes place.[101]

Groups in the Rastafari movement generally state that it is Haile Selassie who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or "Hola") Spirit is to be found within every human being. Rastas also say that the true church is the human body, and that it is this church (or "structure") that contains the Holy Spirit.

Inter-religious dialogue

See also: Islamic view of the Trinity and Shituf. The Trinity doctrine is integral in inter-religious disagreements with the other two main Abrahamic religions, Judaism and Islam; the former rejects Jesus' divine mission entirely, and the latter accepts Jesus as a human prophet and the Messiah but not as the son of God, although accepting virgin birth. The rejection of the Trinity doctrine has led to comparisons between nontrinitarian theology and Judaism and Islam.

In an 1897 article in the Jewish Quarterly Review, Montefiore describes Unitarianism as a bridge between Judaism and mainstream Christianity, calling it both a "phase of Judaism" and a "phase of Christianity".[102]

In Islam, the concept of a co-equal trinity is totally rejected, with Quranic verses calling the doctrine of the Trinity blasphemous.[103] Early Islam was originally seen as a variant of Arianism, a heresy in Orthodox and Catholic Christianity, by the Byzantine emperor in the 600s. In the 700s, many Arians in Spain considered Muhammad a prophet. In the mid-1500s, many Socinian unitarians were suspected of having Islamic leanings. Socinians praised Islam, though considering the Qur'an to contain errors, for its belief in the unity of God. Bilal Cleland claimed that "an anonymous writer" in A Letter of Resolution concerning the Doctrine of the Trinity and Incarnation (1693) states that Islam's greater number of adherents and military supremacy resulted from more closely maintaining correct doctrine than mainstream Christianity.[104]

Arguments for the pagan origins of the Trinity

Some nontrinitarians also say that a link between the doctrine of the Trinity and the Egyptian Christian theologians of Alexandria suggests that Alexandrian theology, with its strong emphasis on the deity of Jesus, served to infuse Egypt's pagan religious heritage into Christianity. They accuse the Church of adopting these Egyptian tenets after adapting them to Christian thinking by means of Greek philosophy.[105]

They say the development of the idea of a co-equal triune godhead was based on pagan Greek and Platonic influence, including many basic concepts from Aristotelian philosophy incorporated into the biblical God. As an example, they mention that Aristotle stated: "All things are three, and thrice is all: and let us use this number in the worship of the gods; for, as Pythagoreans say, everything and all things are bound by threes, for the end, the middle, and the beginning have this number in everything, and these compose the number of the Trinity."[106] [107] However, Trinitarians have argued that the words attributed to Aristotle differ in a number of ways from what has been published as the philosopher's original text in Greek,[108] [109] [110] which omits "let us use this number in the worship of the gods", and are not supported by translations of the works of Aristotle by scholars such as Stuart Leggatt, W. K. C. Guthrie, J.L. Stocks, Thomas Taylor and Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire.[111]

Some anti-trinitarians note also that the Greek philosopher Plato believed in a special "threeness" in life and in the universe. In Phaedo, he introduces the word "triad" (in Greek τριάς),[112] which is rendered in English as "trinity". This was adopted by 3rd and 4thcentury professed Christians as roughly corresponding to "Father, Word, and Spirit (Soul)".[113] Nontrinitarian Christians contend that such notions and adoptions make the Trinity doctrine extra-biblical. They say there is a widely acknowledged synthesis of Christianity with Platonic philosophy evident in trinitarian formulas appearing by the end of the 3rdcentury. They allege that beginning with the Constantinian period, these pagan ideas were forcibly imposed on the churches as Catholic doctrine. Most groups subscribing to the theory of a Great Apostasy generally concur in this thesis.

The early apologists, including Justin Martyr, Tertullian and Irenaeus, frequently discussed the parallels and contrasts between Christianity, Paganism and other syncretic religions, and answered charges of borrowing from paganism in their apologetical writings.

Hellenic influences

See also: Hellenization. Stuart G Hall (formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History at King's College, London) describes the subsequent process of philosophical/theological amalgamation in Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church (1991), where he writes:

The neo-Platonic trinities, such as that of the One, the Nous and the Soul, are not considered a trinity necessarily of consubstantial equals as in mainstream Christianity. However, the neo-Platonic trinity has the doctrine of emanation, or "eternal derivation", a timeless procedure of generation having as a source the One and claimed to be paralleled with the generation of the light from the Sun. This was adopted by Origen and later on by Athanasius, and applied to the generation of the Son from the Father, because they believed that this analogy could be used to support the notion that the Father, as immutable, always had been a Father, and that the generation of the Son is therefore eternal and timeless.[114]

The synthesis of Christianity with Platonic philosophy was further incorporated in the trinitarian formulas that appeared by the end of the 3rd century. "The Greek philosophical theology" was "developed during the Trinitarian controversies over the relationships among the persons of the Godhead".[115] The allegation of borrowing was raised by some disputants when the Nicene doctrine was being formalized and adopted by the bishops. For example, in the 4th century, Marcellus of Ancyra, who taught the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were one person (hypostasis), said in his On the Holy Church, 9:

In his Introduction to the 1964 book Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound influence of Stoic philosophy on Christianity. In particular:

Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, 'This Power we sometimes call the All-ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny.' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion 'these three are One', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions.[116]

Christian groups with nontrinitarian positions

Early Christian

Unitarian and Universalism

Latter Day Saints

Bible Students and splinter groups

Sacred Name movement

Oneness Protestant groups

World Wide Church of God splinter groups

New religious movements

Other Nontrinitarians

Country-specific

People

See also

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Book: The Trinity. 5 March 2015. 978-0-8028-4827-7. Olson. Roger E. Hall. Christopher Alan. 2002. Wm. B. Eerdmans .
  2. Book: The Story of Christian Theology. registration . 173 . InterVarsity Press . 5 March 2015. 978-0-8308-1505-0. Olson. Roger E. 1999.
  3. Book: A Short History of Christian Doctrine. 5 March 2015. 978-1-4514-0423-4. Lohse. Bernhard. 1966. Fortress Press .
  4. Book: Constantinople and the West. 5 March 2015. 978-0-299-11884-6. Geanakoplos. Deno John. 1989. Univ of Wisconsin Press .
  5. Book: Halsey, A.. British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain. 1988. Palgrave Macmillan UK. en . 978-1-349-19466-7. 518. his so called 'non-Trinitarian' group includes the Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Christadelphians, Apostolics, Christian Scientists, Theosophists, Church of Scientology, Unification Church (Moonies), the Worldwide Church of God and so on..
  6. Web site: History of Dogma. 2007-06-15. von Harnack. Adolf . Adolf von Harnack. 1894-03-01 . [In the 2nd century,] Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptionist Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology).
  7. Justo L. González, The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Present Day, Prince Press, 1984, Vol. 1, pp. 159–161• Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, The University of Chicago Press, 1971, Vol. 1, pp. 181–199
  8. Christianity . 6 . 285.
  9. Web site: History of Arianism . 5 March 2015.
  10. Web site: Second Creed of Sirmium or "The Blasphemy of Sirmium". www.fourthcentury.com. 2017-03-09.
  11. Stephen Goranson, "Ebionites," ed. David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 261.
  12. Web site: American Unitarian Conference. 2015-06-30. 2019-05-21. https://web.archive.org/web/20190521191654/http://www.americanunitarian.org/explanation.htm.
  13. David K. Bernard, Oneness and Trinity A.D. 100–300The Doctrine of God and Ancient Christian WritingsWord Aflame Press, Hazelwood Montana, 1991, p. 156.
  14. .
  15. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus John Philoponus
  16. Chapman, John (1912). "Tritheists" Archived 2012-06-15 at the Wayback Machine. The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company (public domain). Retrieved October 16, 2019.
  17. Book: Flint, James . Deb Flint . One God or a Trinity? . Printland Publishers . Hyderabad . 978-81-87409-61-8.
  18. Book: Pearce, Fred . Jesus: God the Son or Son of God? Does the Bible Teach the Trinity? . The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) . Birmingham. 8 .
  19. Book: Tennant, Harry . The Holy Spirit: Bible Understanding of God's Power . The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) . Birmingham .
  20. Nelson's guide to denominations J. Gordon Melton – 2007 "Later in the century, various leaders also began to express doubts about the Trinity, and a spectrum of opinion emerged. ... Still others, such as the Church of God General Conference (Abrahamic Faith) specifically denied the Trinity ..."
  21. Manalo, Eraño G., Fundamental Beliefs of the Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) (Iglesia ni Cristo; Manila 1989)
  22. Encyclopedia of Protestantism, p. 474, J. Gordon Melton, 2005: "... for his many departures from traditional Christian and Protestant affirmations including the Trinity and the deity of Christ. ... 1 (1886; reprint, Rutherford, NJ: Dawn Bible Students Association, nd)"
  23. Watch Tower, October 1881, Watch Tower Reprints p. 290 As Retrieved 2009-09-23, p. 4, ""He gave his only begotten Son." This phraseology brings us into conflict with an old Babylonian theory, viz.: Trinitarianism. If that doctrine is true, how could there be any Son to give? A begotten Son, too? Impossible. If these three are one, did God send himself? And how could Jesus say: "My Father is greater than I." John 14:28. [emphasis retained from original]"
  24. Web site: Z1882 July. 2012-03-05. 2009-01-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20090122101649/http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1882JUL.asp.
  25. The Watchtower. January 15, 1992. 23.
  26. Book: Insight on the Scriptures. 2. 393–394. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 1988.
  27. https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1102014738 Chapter 138 – Christ at God's Right Hand
  28. Book: Should You Believe in the Trinity?. 20. Watch Tower Society.
  29. Web site: The Only True God and Jesus Christ Whom He Hath Sent. Holland . Jeffrey R. . 29 November 2013.
  30. Book: Giles, Jerry C. . http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3818 . Jesus Christ: Firstborn in the Spirit . 728 . Ludlow . Daniel H . Daniel H. Ludlow . 1992 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism . New York . . 978-0-02-879602-4 . 24502140 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism .
  31. Book: Millet, Robert L. . http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3818 . Jesus Christ: Overview . Robert L. Millet . 724–726 . Ludlow . Daniel H . Daniel H. Ludlow . 1992 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism . New York . . 978-0-02-879602-4 . 24502140 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism .
  32. Web site: Arianism . Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry . 29 November 2013. 2008-12-13 .
  33. Book: Robinson, Stephen E. . http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3732 . God the Father: Overview . Stephen E. Robinson . 548–550 . Ludlow . Daniel H . Daniel H. Ludlow . 1992 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism . New York . . 978-0-02-879602-4 . 24502140 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism .
  34. Book: Backman, Milton V. . http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3702 . First Vision . Milton V. Backman . 515–516 . Ludlow . Daniel H . Daniel H. Ludlow . 1992 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism . New York . . 978-0-02-879602-4 . 24502140 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism .
  35. Web site: What is Arianism? . https://web.archive.org/web/20060409074813/http://www.arian-catholic.org/arian/arianism.html . 9 April 2006 . The Arian Catholic Church . 29 November 2013 .
  36. Web site: Gospel Principles – Chapter 1: Our Father in Heaven . The Nature of God . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . 4 June 2017.
  37. Web site: The Oneness of God. https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm. 16 February 2008. 5 March 2015.
  38. Book: Patterson . Eric . Rybarczyk . Edmund . The Future of Pentecostalism in the United States . Lexington Books . 2007 . New York . 123–124 . 978-0-7391-2102-3 .
  39. Web site: Bryan Stevenson weaves story, policy in 2017 Ware Lecture. McCardle, Elaine and Kenny Wiley. 2017-06-28. UU World. 2019-09-17. Stevenson referred to the UU faith's members repeatedly as "Universalists," which caught the attention of several social media users. Unitarian Universalists are more commonly referred to colloquially as "Unitarians.".
  40. Web site: Unitarians Making Peace with Easter . Buursma. Bruce. 1986-03-30. Chicago Tribune. en-US. 2019-09-17.
  41. Web site: Beliefs & Principles. Unitarian Universalist Association. 9 February 2015. uua.org. 2019-09-17.
  42. Web site: Christian Unitarian Universalists. Unitarian Universalist Association. 25 November 2014. uua.org. 2019-09-17. Some of our UU congregations are Christian in orientation, worshipping regularly with the New Testament, offering Communion, and celebrating Christian holidays throughout the year. All of our congregations welcome people with Christian backgrounds and beliefs..
  43. http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/urkunde-33 Edict by Emperor Constantine against the Arians
  44. "In addition, if any writing composed by Arius should be found, it should be handed over to the flames, so that not only will the wickedness of his teaching be obliterated, but nothing will be left even to remind anyone of him. And I hereby make a public order, that if someone should be discovered to have hidden a writing composed by Arius, and not to have immediately brought it forward and destroyed it by fire, his penalty shall be death. As soon as he is discovered in this offense, he shall be submitted for capital punishment." – Edict by Emperor Constantine against the Arians. Web site: Athanasius. Edict by Emperor Constantine against the Arians. Fourth Century Christianity. Wisconsin Lutheran College. 2 May 2012. 23 January 2010.
  45. Book: Getting to Know the Church Fathers. 5 March 2015. 978-1-4412-0074-7. Litfin. Bryan M. 2007. Brazos Press .
  46. Book: Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe. 5 March 2015. 978-1-57607-263-9. Frassetto. Michael. 2003. Bloomsbury Academic .
  47. Book: Early Controversies and the Growth of Christianity. registration. 113. into the Arian version.. ABC-CLIO. 5 March 2015. 978-0-313-38359-5. Kaatz. Kevin. 2012.
  48. Web site: NPNF2-04. Athanasius: Select Works and Letters. 5 March 2015.
  49. Elaine Pagels, Beyond Belief: The Secret Gospel of Thomas (Random House, 2003), n.p.
  50. Web site: NPNF2-04. Athanasius: Select Works and Letters . Ccel.org . 13 July 2005 . 21 January 2012.
  51. David Bernard's The Oneness of God, Word Aflame Press, 1983, . pp. 264–274.
  52. Book: Wells, H. G. . H. G. Wells . The Outline of History: being a plain history of life and mankind . The Waverley Book Company . Forgotten Books . 2 . n.d. . London . 284 . 978-1-4400-8226-9 .
  53. W. Fulton, "Trinity", Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, T. & T. Clark, 1921, Vol. 12, p. 459.
  54. Unitarians face a new age: the report of the Commission of Appraisal. American Unitarian Association. ed. Frederick May Eliot, Harlan Paul Douglass – 1936 "Chapter III Church Growth and Decline During the Last Decade. Year Book data permit the calculation of growth or decline in membership for 297 Unitarian churches which existed throughout the last decade and ..."
  55. Charles Lippy (2006), Faith in America: Changes, Challenges, New Directions, p.2. Quote: "However, when the national interest in novel religious forms waned by the mid- nineteenth century, Unitarianism and Universalism began to decline. For the vast majority of religious bodies in America, growth continued unabated."
  56. Brown, Raymond E. . 1 December 1965 . Does the New Testament Call Jesus God? . Theological Studies . 26 . 4 . 545–573 . 10.1177/004056396502600401. 53007327.
  57. Jacob A. . Loewen . 1 April 1984 . The Names of God in the New Testament . The Bible Translator . 35 . 2 . 208–211 . 10.1177/026009438403500202 . 172043076.
  58. Book: New American Bible . St. Joseph . Bible Dictionary . Confraternity of Christian Doctrine . Catholic Book Publishing . 2011 . 978-0-89942-617-4.
  59. Web site: Against Dalcour II . February 2017 . Apostolic Academics . Oneness Pentecostal Apologetics . 10 July 2019.
  60. Book: Reasoning from the Scriptures . 1986 . 2015 . . Philadelphia. 405, 415–416 .
  61. Book: Hertz, J.H. . 1960 . The Pentateuch and the Haftorahs . 1 . 215 . Soncino Press . 978-0-900689-21-5 . registration .
  62. Book: Kruse, Colin G. . 2004 . The Gospel According to John . Wm. B. Eerdmans . 978-0-8028-2771-5 . 5 March 2015 . Google Books.
  63. Book: Ramsey Michaels, J. . 2011. John . Understanding the Bible – Commentary . 978-1-4412-3659-3 . 5 March 2015 . Google Books.
  64. Book: Radmacher, Earl . 1999 . Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Commentary . Thomas Nelson . 978-1-4185-8734-5 . Google Books.
  65. Book: Gundry, Robert H. . 2011. dmy-all . Commentary on John . Commentary on the New Testament . 4 . 5 March 2015 . 978-1-4412-3761-3 . Google Books.
  66. Web site: John 1:1c: "God", "divine", or "a god"? . OnlyTruGod.org . 24 November 2014.
  67. Book: Kaiser, Christopher B. . 1982 . The Doctrine of God: A historical survey . Foundations for Faith . Westchester . Crossway Books . 31.
  68. Web site: Should you believe in the trinity? . 2006 . Jehovah's Witness (wol.jw.org) . . 24 .
  69. Stay Biblical - All Jesus is God Bible passages and claims debunked
  70. Web site: Kemp, Steve . 22 May 2000 . Elohiym . Biblical Heritage Center . Myers, Jim . c. 2009 . 2009-04-02 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091029040650/http://www.biblicalheritage.org/Linguistic/HL/1-A/-elohiym.htm . 2009-10-29.
  71. אֱלֹהִים (elohim) – God, god . Strong's Hebrew . 430 . 5 March 2015.
  72. Web site: Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon. Bible Study Tools.
  73. Web site: 2 Corinthians 13:14 – Trinity? . 2010-10-09 . The Son of Jehovah . wordpress.com . blog . 5 March 2015.
  74. Philippians 2:5–6
  75. Philippians 2:5–6
  76. https://www.biblicalunitarian.com/verses/philippians-2-6-8} Philippians 2:6–8
  77. Web site: The trinity delusion – Philippians 2:6 . angelfire.com . 8 July 2019.
  78. Web site: Skip . Moen . October 2014 . The assumed trinity: A look at Philippians 2:6 . Hebrew Word Study . skipmoen.com . 8 July 2019.
  79. Book: Kemball-Cook, David . 2007 . Is God a Trinity? . Lulu.com . 978-0-9542211-1-9 . self-published . 5 March 2015 . Google Books.
  80. Book: Stephen T. Davis. Daniel Kendall. Gerald O'Collins. Oxford University Press. 2002. The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the Trinity. 978-0-19-924612-0. 357.
  81. 1:3
  82. Web site: The Chalcedonian Definition. 5 March 2015.
  83. http://noemon.net/noesis/The%20word%20Homoousios%20from%20Hellenism%20to%20Christianity.pdf The Word "Homoousios" from Hellenism to Christianity
  84. Web site: The word Trinity is not found in the Bible. CARM – The Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry. 5 March 2015. 2008-11-24.
  85. Book: The Voice... 5 March 2015. 978-1-4196-1730-0. McQuick. Oneil. 2005. L.I.M .
  86. Web site: Institute for Religious Research – The Biblical Basis of the Doctrine of the Trinity – Introduction. Institute for Religious Research. 5 March 2015.
  87. The Unitarian: a monthly magazine of liberal Christianity ed. Jabez Thomas Sunderland, Brooke Herford, Frederick B. Mott – 1893 "We believe in the Holy Spirit, man's sole reliance for guidance, safety, or salvation, not as a separate person, entity, reality, or consciousness, existent apart from man or God, but as the recognizing sympathetic inter-communication in love between God and the human soul, the direct converse or communion of man's consciousness with Deity."
  88. Book: Broughton, James H. . Peter J Southgate . The Trinity: True or False? . The Dawn Book Supply . UK . https://web.archive.org/web/20111118003323/http://www.biblelight.org/trin/trinind.htm . 2011-11-18 .
  89. Awake!. Is the Holy Spirit a Person?. July 2006. 14–15. In the Bible, God's Holy Spirit is identified as God's power in action. Hence, an accurate translation of the Bible's Hebrew text refers to God's spirit as "God's active force"..
  90. http://reluctant-messenger.com/HWA/Mystery/Chapter1.html Who and What Is God?
  91. Peter Althouse Spirit of the last days: Pentecostal eschatology in conversation p. 12. 2003. "The Oneness Pentecostal stream follows in the steps of the Reformed stream, but has a modalistic view of the Godhead"
  92. See under heading "The Father is the Holy Ghost" in David Bernard, The Oneness of God, Chapter 6.
  93. See also David Bernard, A Handbook of Basic Doctrines, Word Aflame Press, 1988.
  94. See under "The Lord God and His Spirit," in Chapter 7 of David Bernard, The Oneness of God .
  95. Book: Wilson, Jerry A. . Holy Spirit . http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3768 . 651 . Ludlow . Daniel H . Daniel H. Ludlow . 1992 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism . New York . . 978-0-02-879602-4 . 24502140 . The Holy Spirit is a term often used to refer to the Holy Ghost. In such cases the Holy Spirit is a personage." . Encyclopedia of Mormonism .
  96. Book: McConkie, Joseph Fielding . Joseph Fielding McConkie . Holy Ghost . http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3766 . 649–651 . Ludlow . Daniel H . Daniel H. Ludlow . 1992 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism . New York . . 978-0-02-879602-4 . 24502140 . Encyclopedia of Mormonism .
  97. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/131.7-8?lang=eng D&C 131:7–8
  98. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/130.22?lang=eng D&C 130:22
  99. Book: Millennial Star . XII . October 15, 1850 . 305–309 . March 30, 2011.
  100. Web site: Basic Beliefs Articles of Faith and Practice. Church of Christ. 21 January 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150121163919/http://www.churchofchrist-tl.org/basicBeliefs.html. 21 January 2015.
  101. Web site: Unity Palo Alto Community Church – Beliefs | Twenty Questions and Answers. www.unitypaloalto.org . https://web.archive.org/web/20071007071544/http://www.unitypaloalto.org/beliefs/twenty_questions.html . October 7, 2007.
  102. Unitarianism and Judaism in Their Relations to Each Other . C. G. . Montefiore . The Jewish Quarterly Review . 9 . 2 . January 1897 . 240–253 . 1450588 . 2016-06-18 . 10.2307/1450588 . You [Unitarian Christians] have relations and points of connexion with Judaism on the one side, and with orthodox Christianity on the other. You are in a position of vantage to absorb the permanent elements of truth and value lying at your right hand and at your left. For, looked at from one point of view, though you might yourselves deny it, you constitute a phase of Judaism; looked at from another, though many Christians deny it, you are a phase of Christianity. The paradox of the one assertion to some of yourselves is no greater than the paradox of the other to many beyond your pale.
  103. Book: The Holy Qur'an. 4:171.
  104. Web site: Islam and Unitarians. Bilal. Cleland. Tell me about Islam. 16 June 2016.
  105. 'At times he forms one of a trinity in unity, with Ra and Osiris, as in Fig. 87, a god with the two sceptres of Osiris, the hawk's head of Horus, and the sun of Ra. This is the god described to Eusebius, who tells us that when the oracle was consulted about the divine nature, by those who wished to understand this complicated mythology, it had answered, "I am Apollo and Lord and Bacchus," or, to use the Egyptian names, "I am Ra and Horus and Osiris." Another god, in the form of a porcelain idol to be worn as a charm, shows us Horus as one of a trinity in unity, in name, at least, agreeing with that afterwards adopted by the Christians—namely, the Great God, the Son God, and the Spirit God.'—Samuel Sharpe, Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity, 1863, pp. 89–90.
  106. Web site: How Ancient Trinitarian Gods Influenced Adoption of the Trinity. United Church of God. 5 March 2015. 2011-07-22.
  107. Michael Barber – Should Christianity Abandon the Doctrine of the Trinity? – Universal-Publishers, Nov 1, 2006 – Part Three, p. 78.
  108. Web site: Περί Ουρανού/1. 5 March 2015.
  109. Web site: Aristote: Traité du Ciel (livre I – texte grec). 5 March 2015.
  110. Web site: Bekker edition of Aristotle's works, volume II, p. 211 . 2017-09-10 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140827163240/http://www.scribd.com/doc/95303712/Aristotle-Opera-I-Bekker-v2-Greek-De-Caelo-Libri-IV . 2014-08-27 .
  111. Review. The Philosophical Review. 108. 2. 285–287. 2998305. McKirahan. Richard D.. 1999. 10.2307/2998305.
  112. Phaedo 104e.
  113. Course of Ideas, pp. 387–388.
  114. Select Treatises of St. Athanasius – In Controversy With the Arians – Freely Translated by John Henry Cardinal Newmann – Longmans, Green, and Co., 1911
  115. A. Hilary Armstrong, Henry J. Blumenthal, Platonism. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 13, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD.
  116. Book: Aurelius, Marcus . Marcus Aurelius. Meditations . registration . 1964 . London . . 25 . 978-0-14-044140-6.
  117. [Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]
  118. Neusner, Jacob, ed. 2009. World Religions in America: An Introduction, Fourth Ed. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, p. 257.
  119. Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin. 1998. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Active New Religions, Sects and Cults, Revised Ed. New York: Rosen Publishing Group, p. 73.
  120. Walker, James K. (2007). The Concise Guide to Today's Religions and Spirituality. Eugene, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers. pp. 117–118.
  121. Avery Cardinal Dulles. The Deist Minimum. 2005.

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