Non-denominational Muslim explained

Non-denominational Muslims are Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches.[1] Such Muslims do not think of themselves as belonging to a denomination but rather as "just Muslims" or "non-denominational Muslims."[2] Muslims who do not adhere to a sect are also known as non-sectarian Muslims.[3]

While the majority of the population in the Middle East identify as either Sunni or Shi'a, a significant number of Muslims identify as non-denominational.[4] According to a 2012 study by the Pew Research Center, Muslims who do not identify with a sect and identify as "just Muslim" make up a majority of the Muslims in eight countries: Kazakhstan (74%), Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), and a plurality in four countries: Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), Nigeria (42%), and Cameroon (40%).[5] They are found primarily in Central Asia. Kazakhstan has the largest proportion of Muslims who do not identify with a sect, who constitute about 74% of the Muslim population. Southeastern Europe also has a large number of Muslims who do not identify with a sect. Sectarian controversies have a long and complex history in Islam and they have been exploited and amplified by rulers for political ends. However, the notion of Muslim unity has remained an important ideal and in modern times intellectuals have spoken against sectarian divisions. Surveys have reported that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim" or "Muslim only", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Etymology

Non-sectarian Muslims

Muslims who do not adhere to a sect are also known as non-sectarian Muslims.[12]

Non-

The description non- may be used for example in relation to Islamic studies at educational institutions that are not limited in scope to one particular madhhab or school of jurisprudence.[13] For non-denominational Muslims, Pew uses the description of "choose not to affiliate"[14] while Russian officials use the term "Unaffiliated Muslims" for those who do not belong to any branch or denomination.[15] Unlike Sunnis, Shias, and Ibadis, non-denominational Muslims are not affiliated with any school of thought (madhhab).[16] [17] [18]

The term, i.e., "non-blind-follower", can be used to describe the adherents of movements such as Salafism and Ahl-e-Hadith who do not necessarily follow the rulings of a particular traditional but identify as Sunni Muslims.[19] [20] [21] [22]

History of sectarianism

See main article: Shia–Sunni relations.

After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, two conflicting views emerged about who should succeed him as the leader of the Muslim community. Some Muslims, who believed that Muhammad never clearly named his successor, resorted to the Arabian tradition of electing their leader by a council of influential members of the community.[23] Others believed that Muhammad had chosen his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him.[23] This disagreement eventually resulted in a civil war which pitted supporters of Ali against supporters of the founder of the Umayyad dynasty Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, and these two camps later evolved into the Sunni and Shia denominations.[24] For the Shias, Ali and the Imams who succeeded him gradually became the embodiment of God's continuing guidance, and they tended to stress the religious functions of the caliphate and deplore its political compromises; Sunnis were more inclined to circumscribe its religious role and more readily accepted its pragmatic dimensions.[24] As these differences became increasingly vested with religious importance, they gave rise to two distinct forms of Islam.[24]

One assumption is that Sunnis represent Islam as it existed before the divisions, and should be considered as normative, or the standard.[25] This perception is partly due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works, and also because the vast majority of the population is Sunni.[25] Both Sunnism and Shi'ism are the end products of several centuries of competition between ideologies.[25] Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and divisions.[26]

During the Umayyad period, many non-Arab converts (mawali) and their sects and schools tended to be willing to join anti-Umayyad causes.[27] Both Sunni and Shia scholars have held anti-Umayyad views, most notably concerning Yazid ibn Mu'awiyah.[28] [29]

In the early modern period, the conflict between Shias and Sunnis took a turn for the worse when the Safavid and Ottoman dynasties turned the military conflict between them into a religious war after the Safavids made Shia Islam the state religion in their empire.[30] During that era some Sunnis and Shias for the first time began refusing to recognize each other as Muslims.[30] Sectarianism continued to be exploited for political benefits into modern times. An example of this was the Zia regime in Pakistan, who used sectarian divisions between the Sunni and Shia to counter the growing geopolitical influence of Iran, as well as to distract from the domestic political problems.[31] Post-Zia governments in Pakistan continued to "cynically manipulate sectarian conflicts for short term political gain."[31]

Development and thought

Non-denominational Muslims defend their stance by pointing to the Quran such as Al Imran verse 103, which asks Muslims to stay united and not to become divided.[32]

Talking about sectarianism, Muslim poet Hafiz (d. 1389-1390) said, "Forgive the war of the 72 sects; since they did not see the truth they have struck out on the road to fancy". Hafiz regarded sectarian quarrels as afsana (a tale) that preoccupies those who fail to understand the diversity of faith.[33] The poems of Hafiz were known for their non-sectarian tone, and were even quoted by Debendranath Tagore.[34]

The third Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605), who was from a Sunni family and was tutored by two Shia scholars from Iran, was aware of the dangers of Muslim sectarian dissension, and did not tolerate sectarian disputes disrupting the public order. In 1578, Akbar forced all major ulama to sign a mahzar, in this case a declaration that he alone was the caliph and that, consequently, his opinion in religious matters prevailed.[35]

Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, the pan-Islamist revolutionary Jamal al-Din al-Afghani refused to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar.[36] A proponent of Muslim unity, he criticised Sunni and Shia extremists as well as the ideology of nationalism, insisting that Islam was doctrinally the only nationality for all Muslims and historically the only bond that effectively tied them all together.[37]

Believing in the unification of Muslims in order to go back to the "true Islam", Egyptian scholar Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905) held that the extreme fervour of sects was responsible for the divide of Muslims, and this division, alongside unsubstantiated religious practises and false religious doctrine such as the exaggerations of the Sufi order, was one of the reasons for their decline.[38]

Islam originally brought a radical egalitarianism to a fiercely tribal society, within which a person's status was based on his tribal membership.[39] The Quran set all believing individuals as equals, erasing the importance of tribal status. The primary identity of "Muslims" became simply "Muslim", rather than as a member of a tribe, ethnicity or gender. The Quranic concept of the ummah depends on this unified concept of an Islamic community, and it was appealed to again in the 19th century, as a response to colonialism by European powers.[40] One Muslim scholar leading the emphasis on Muslim unity was Muhammad Iqbal, whose views have been referred to as "ummatic".[41] Iqbal emphatically referred to sectarianism as an "idol" that needed to be "smashed forever".[42] He is quoted as having stated, "I condemn this accursed religious and social sectarianism, there are no Wahhabis, Shias or Sunnis. Fight not for interpretations of the truth when the truth itself is in danger." In his later life, Iqbal began to transcend the narrow domain of nationalist causes and began to speak to the Muslims spread all over the globe, encouraging them to unify as one community.[43]

Iqbal's influence on Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, is also well documented. Jinnah was born to an Ismaili Shia family and briefly converted to Sunni Islam as a young man. Jinnah publicly described himself as neither Shia nor Sunni, and his standard answer to questions asking him to define his sect being: "was the Prophet Muhammad a Shia or a Sunni?"[44]

Other intellectuals who spoke against sectarianism during this era were Altaf Hussain Hali, who blamed sectarianism for the decline of Muslims, the Aga Khan III, who cited it as a hindrance to progress, and Muhammad Akram Khan, who said sectarianism drained the intellectual capacities of Muslim scholars.[42]

An anti-sectarian culture and anti-sectarian nationalist movements and parties emerged in Syria after 1860, especially around the Arab movement and the Arab government under King Faisal I of Iraq (r. 1921-1933).[45] Faisal, who abhorred sectarianism,[46] was an advocate of a mild and inclusive form of Arab nationalism, around which a consensus could be built, and as a shared platform that could span the differences between the sects. Due to his anti-sectarian stance, Faisal had a displeasing relationship with Sati' al-Husri.[47]

In 1947, the non-sectarian movement was founded in Cairo, Egypt.[48] Several of its supporters were high-ranking scholars of Al-Ahzar University.[49] The movement sought to bridge the gap between Sunnis and Shi'is.[50] At the end of the 1950s, the movement reached a wider public, as the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser discovered the usefulness of pan-Islamism for his foreign policy.[51]

During his reign, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of the Emirates urged solidarity and co-operation between nations, Arab and non-Arab. The ideal policy in his view was openness and a combination of modernisation and preservation of traditional values and distinct identity. He also called for protecting Islam against sectarianism and factionalism.[52]

During his reign, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia (r. 2005-2015) acted to reduce regional sectarianism.[53] Abdullah's promotion of sectarian harmony was faced by many challenges, including the king not having the support of all members of the royal family.[54]

According to Thomas West and Sonia Alianak, Jordan and Morocco withstood the tidal wave of revolutions during the Arab Spring of 2011 because King Abdullah II of Jordan and King Muhammad VI of Morocco, both descendants of Prophet Muhammad and non-sectarian, resorted to reform instead of being toppled by making use of their religious credentials and pedigrees.[55]

In Pakistan, sectarianism is cited as a hindrance to the unification of Islamic Law: "Codification of the Islamic Laws related to family and property on the basis of the concept of Talfiq[56] should also be considered. This will require strong public opinion in favour of this unification of the Islamic Law on a non-sectarian basis, as no change can be considered permanent unless it has full support of the public."[57]

Academia

There are faith schools and graduation programs with curriculums that have been described as being oriented towards non-denominational Islam.[58] Non-denominational Muslims have been adopted by some theocratic governments into their fold of pan-Islamism as a means to tackle unreasoning partisanship and takfirism.[59] Some academic press publishing companies have assigned a proper noun-like title to Muslims without a specific sectarian affiliation by capitalizing the designation as Just a Muslim. The customs and rituals practised by non-denominational Muslims in Northern Nigeria are statistically more likely to be Sunni-inclined.[60] In other jurisdictions, some officials have applied a mandatory religious instruction that purportedly gives students a non-denominational outlook in an attempt to appear pluralistic, but in practice, does no such thing.[61]

Dispersions

Western-born Muslims are more likely to be non-affiliated than immigrant Muslims,[62] and when pressed may suggest they try to follow Islamic religious texts "as closely as possible".[63] Although Pew has given comprehensive figures on Muslims with an unspecified branch or affiliation, earlier research from 2006 has also come from CAIR.[64] Some publishers and authors have categorized such non-specified Muslims as being within the liberal or progressive stream of the faith.[65] Sahelian non-denominational Muslims have demonstrated an aversion to austere religious measures.[66] However, non-denominational Muslims in a locality in India have expressly suggested that non-denominational Islam is more traditional than what they consider as the more puritan and reformist Deobandi movement.[67]

Although some non-denominational Muslims came to their position influenced by their parents, others have come to this position irrespective and in spite of their parents.[68] Some laymen non-denominational Muslims exhibit hostility towards the notion that Islam is divided into the binary subdivisions of Sunnism and Shiaism, thereby erasing space for the unaffiliated non-denominational Muslims.[11]

Non-denominational Islam has been described as a generic or a broad run-of-the-mill approach to the faith.[1] Some adherents to the non-denominational form of Islam perceive it as less judgemental or censorious. Some non-denominational Muslims consider their unaffiliated stance to be a shield against the risk of becoming docile and meek subjects of domineering clergymen.[36] According to the Muslim Council of America, facets occurring among non-denominational Muslims from a practical point of view includes lacking organizational convenance or spokespersons, and in terms of precepts, a universal or inclusive approach to all schools of thought. According to MCA, non-denominational Muslims also deemphasize the opinion of scholars, viewing them as non-binding, reject the blasphemy or laws within Islam, and posit the implementation of human dignity, freedom of expression and human intellect according to circumstance and changing situations, such as discernment between the present and seventh century Arabia.[69] They have also depicted non-denominational Muslims as having a theological position that favors self-determination, human intellect, human dignity, a proportionate level of egalitarianism between the various religions and genders, and adapting to changing circumstances.[69] Despite on occasion sourcing indicating that those identifying as just a Muslim may constitute up to a quarter of Muslims,[70] more established institutions may express hostility to such a flexible approach to faith due to its ability to foment attitudes calling for an elimination of Islamic clergy.[69]

Setting

In 2017, there were 144 non-denominational prayer rooms and other places of worship in the United Kingdom, open to all denominations. This represented 7.4% of the total of mosques and Islamic prayer rooms in the UK. 99% of them provided women's facilities such as prayer space, toilets or ablution spaces.[71] In 2013, there were 156 non-denominational Muslim prayer rooms and places of worship in the U.K, although according to Mehmood Naqshbandi, the congregation does not necessarily subscribe to the same viewpoints as the staff. This represented 3.5 per cent of the total mosque capacity and 9.4% of the total number of mosques and Islamic prayer rooms in the UK.[72] Those who are non-denominational Muslim have seen the term adopted or adherents coalescing with a wide assortment of persuasions, including Muslim revivalists (known as mujaddids), Salafists,[73] active members of the Muslim Brotherhood,[74] those who criticise the traditional Muslim view on homosexuality,[75] or the quintessential all-embracing college, described as a "non-denominational Muslim institution" in Ota Ogun State, Nigeria wherein in the 1950s, all its Islam-related shelves were stocked with books solely affiliated with Ahmadiyya or from western orientalists,[76] even though Ahmadiyya is considered heretical in countries such as India, Pakistan, and Indonesia.[77]

Polls

According to a 2012 Pew study, Muslims who do not identify with a sect and identify as "just Muslim" make up a majority of the Muslims in eight countries: Kazakhstan (74%), Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), and a plurality in four countries: Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), Nigeria (42%), and Cameroon (40%).[5] They are found primarily in Central Asia. Kazakhstan has the largest proportion of Muslims who do not identify with a sect, who constitute about 74% of the Muslim population. According to WorldAtlas, 30% of Moroccans are non-denominational Muslims.[78] While the majority of the population in the Middle East identify as either Sunni or Shi'a, a significant number of Muslims identify as non-denominational.[79] Southeastern Europe also has a large number of Muslims who do not identify with a sect.

Commentary

It has been described as a phenomenon that gained momentum in the 20th century which can overlap with orthodox Sunni tenets despite adherents not adhering to any specific madhab.[80] [81] In an alluding commentary on surah Al-Muʼminun verse 53 of the Qur'an, Abdullah Yusuf Ali states:

Organizations

Notable individuals

Notable figures who have espoused an anti-sectarian stance include:

See also

Other religions:

Notes and References

  1. News: Benakis . Theodoros . 13 January 2014 . Islamophobia in Europe! . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ . 31 January 2016 . 20 October 2015 . New Europe . Brussels.
  2. Book: Muslims on the Margins: Creating Queer Religious Community in North America . 9781479814367 . Thompson . Katrina Daly . 11 April 2023 . NYU Press .
  3. Book: The World's Religions: Islam . 978-1-134-93195-8 . Clarke . Peter . June 2002 . Routledge .
  4. Book: Cultural and Heritage Tourism in the Middle East and North Africa: Complexities, Management and Practices . 9781000177169 . Seyfi . Siamak . Michael Hall . C. . 28 September 2020 . Routledge .
  5. Web site: Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation. August 9, 2012. The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 4 September 2013.
  6. Book: Burns. Robert. Christianity, Islam, and the West. December 2011. 55. University Press of America . 9780761855606. 40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations.
  7. Book: Mustapha . Abdul . Sects & Social Disorder . 2014 . 5 . Boydell & Brewer . 9781847011077 . of Muslims identified themselves as Sunni, 12 per cent as Shi'a, 3 per cent as Ahmadiyya but 44 per cent as 'just Muslim' (Pew Forum, 2010).
  8. Book: Muttitt. Greg. Fuel on the Fire: Oil and Politics in Occupied Iraq. Vintage. 2012. 79. 9781595588050. registration. A January 2004 survey by the Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies, for instance, asked people which description suited them best Sunni Muslim, Shi'a Muslim or just Muslim'..
  9. Book: Boulting. Ned. On the Road Bike: The Search For a Nation's Cycling Soul. 155. What is your religion, asked a UN official. Muslim. Are you Shi'a or Sunni. Just Muslim.
  10. Book: Tatari. Eren. Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets. 2014. 111. BRILL . 9789004272262. Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi and two said their families are Alevi.
  11. Book: Lopez. Ralph. Truth in the Age of Bushism. 2008. 65. Lulu.com . 9781434896155. Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim.".
  12. Book: The World's Religions: Islam . 978-1-134-93195-8 . Clarke . Peter . June 2002 . Routledge .
  13. Book: Tan. Charlene. Reforms in Islamic Education: International Perspectives. 2014. A&C Black . 9781441146175. This is due to the historical, sociological, cultural, rational and non-denominational (non-madhhabi) approaches to Islam employed at IAINs, STAINs, and UINs, as opposed to the theological, normative and denominational approaches that were common in Islamic educational institutions in the past.
  14. Rane, Halim, Jacqui Ewart, and John Martinkus. "Islam and the Muslim World." Media Framing of the Muslim World. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. 15-28
  15. Obydenkova, Anastassia V. "Religious pluralism in Russia." Politics of religion and nationalism: Federalism, consociationalism and secession, Routledge (2014): 36-49
  16. Book: Tan. Charlene. Reforms in Islamic Education: International Perspectives. 2014. A&C Black . 9781441146175. This is due to the historical, sociological, cultural, rational and non-denominational (non-madhhabi) approaches to Islam employed at IAINs, STAINs, and UINs, as opposed to the theological, normative and denominational approaches that were common in Islamic educational institutions in the past.
  17. Rane, Halim, Jacqui Ewart, and John Martinkus. "Islam and the Muslim World." Media Framing of the Muslim World. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. 15-28
  18. Obydenkova, Anastassia V. "Religious pluralism in Russia." Politics of religion and nationalism: Federalism, consociationalism and secession, Routledge (2014): 36-49
  19. Qasmi, Ali Usman. "Islamic Universalism: The ‘Amritsarī’Version of Ahl al-Qurʾān." Journal of Islamic Studies 20.2 (2009): 159-187.
  20. Maghen, Ze'ev. "See No Evil: Morality and Methodology in Ibn Al-qattān al-Fāsī's Ahkām al-nazar bi-Hāssat al-Basar." Islamic Law and Society 14.3 (2007): 342-390.
  21. Abou Zahab, Mariam. "Salafism in Pakistan." Global Salafism: Islam’s New Religious Movement, Roel Meijer (ed.)(New York: Columbia University Press, 2009) (2011): 126-142.
  22. Khan, Mohammad Sharif, and Mohammad Anwar Saleem. Muslim Philosophy and Philosophers. APH Publishing, 1994.
  23. Encyclopedia: Shi'ism. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia (ed. Josef W. Meri). 2006. Routledge. 736.
  24. Book: Lapidus, Ira M. . Ira M. Lapidus . A History of Islamic societes . Cambridge University Press . 2014. 67. 9780521514309 .
  25. Book: Hughes. Aaron. Muslim Identities: An Introduction to Islam. 9 April 2013. 115–116. Columbia University Press . 9780231531924. It is a mistake to assume as is commonly done that Sunni Islam arose as normative from the chaotic period following Muhammad's death... This mistake is based in... the taking of later and often highly ideological sources as accurate historical portrayals - and in part on the fact that the overwhelming majority of Muslims throughout the world follows now what emerged as Sunni Islam....
  26. Book: Hughes. Aaron. Muslim Identities: An Introduction to Islam. 9 April 2013. 116. Columbia University Press . 9780231531924. Each of these sectarian movements... used the other to define itself more clearly and in the process to articulate its doctrinal contents and rituals..
  27. Book: Sectarianism in Islam . 9781107032255 . Gaiser . Adam R. . 24 November 2022 . Cambridge University Press .
  28. Book: The Caliph and the Imam: The Making of Sunnism and Shiism . 978-0-19-068946-9 . Matthiesen . Toby . 9 March 2023 . Oxford University Press .
  29. Book: Wahhabis Fitna Exposed . 9789976956764 . Rizvi . Sayyid Saeed Akhtar . January 1996 . Bilal Muslim Mission of Tanzania .
  30. Book: Bartold, Vasily . Vasily Bartold . Mussulman Culture . University of Calcutta. 1936. 143–144.
  31. Book: Copland. Ian. South Asia: The Spectre of Terrorism. 18 October 2013. 138–139. Routledge . 9781317967736.
  32. Intra-Societal Tension and National Integration, p 119, A. Jamil Qadri - 1988
  33. Web site: The mystery of 73 sects . 9 August 2013 .
  34. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=deNfpU7HUJMC&pg=PA24&dq=The+non-sectarian+tone+of+the+poems+of+Hafiz+struck+Debendra-+nath&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi7rNPRkdSHAxVizAIHHXVWKfUQ6AF6BAgIEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  35. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QIKEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA198&dq=Akbar+declared+he+would+no+longer+tolerate+sectarian+disputes+disrupting+the+public+order&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjv9ojHs-OHAxVsQEEAHcI3CdYQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  36. Book: Cughtai. Muhammad Ikram. Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence. 2005. 454. Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al-Afghani refused to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam..
  37. Web site: American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:2 . Hosen . Nadirsyah . Salem . Ahmed Ali . Rashid . Samory . Reda . Nevin .
  38. Book: Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society . 978-0-8014-6489-8 . Ende . Werner . Steinbach . Udo . 15 December 2011 . Cornell University Press .
  39. Book: Esposito. John. What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam: Second Edition. 13 July 2011. 16. Oxford University Press, USA . 9780199794133.
  40. Book: Esposito. John. What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam: Second Edition. 13 July 2011. 17. Oxford University Press, USA . 9780199794133.
  41. Junid. Sanusi. Iqbal and Muslim Unity. Intellectual Discourse. 2002. 10. 2, 115–124. 116. International Islamic University Malaysia. Iqbal's vision was Ummatic and hence he should be referred to as "the poet philosopher of Muslim unity.".
  42. Book: Jones. Justin. Shi'a Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism. 24 October 2011. 25–26. Cambridge University Press . 9781139501231.
  43. Junid. Sanusi. Iqbal and Muslim Unity. Intellectual Discourse. 2002. 10. 2, 115–124. 120. International Islamic University Malaysia. Iqbal was no longer writing for Indian Muslims alone but for his coreligionists scattered all over the world. He had switched from Urdu to Persian to make his message available to the largest number of the adherents of Islam..
  44. News: Ahmed. Khaled. Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni?. 23 October 2015. The Friday Times. https://web.archive.org/web/20111117111449/http://www.thefridaytimes.com/24122010/page27.shtml. 17 November 2011. dead.
  45. Book: Sectarianism without Sects . 978-0-19-765032-5 . Bishara . Azmi . March 2022 . Oxford University Press .
  46. News: Man of the moment . The Economist .
  47. Book: Faisal I of Iraq . 978-0-300-12732-4 . Allawi . Ali A. . 11 March 2014 . Yale University Press .
  48. Book: Rethinking Salafism: The Transnational Networks of Salafi 'Ulama in Egypt, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia . 978-0-19-094895-5 . Ismail . Raihan . 2021 . Oxford University Press .
  49. Book: A Comparative History of Catholic and Aš'arī Theologies of Truth and Salvation: Inclusive Minorities, Exclusive Majorities . 9789004461765 . Abdelnour . Mohammed Gamal . 25 May 2021 . BRILL .
  50. Book: A Comparative History of Catholic and Aš'arī Theologies of Truth and Salvation: Inclusive Minorities, Exclusive Majorities . 9789004461765 . Abdelnour . Mohammed Gamal . 25 May 2021 . BRILL .
  51. Book: A Comparative History of Catholic and Aš'arī Theologies of Truth and Salvation: Inclusive Minorities, Exclusive Majorities . 9789004461765 . Abdelnour . Mohammed Gamal . 25 May 2021 . BRILL .
  52. Book: Words of a Leader Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan al Nahyan Father . 2018 . دائرة الثقافة والسياحة – أبوظبي، مركز أبوظبي للغة العربية، إصدارات . 978-9948-39-978-0 .
  53. Book: Saudi Arabia and the Path to Political Change: National Dialogue and Civil Society . 978-0-85772-407-6 . Thompson . Mark C. . 16 June 2014 . Bloomsbury .
  54. Book: Saudi Clerics and Shi'a Islam . 978-0-19-023332-7 . Ismail . Raihan . 5 February 2016 . Oxford University Press .
  55. Book: Parallel Religious Revolutions in Britain in 1688 and Egypt in 2013 . 978-1-5275-8155-5 . West . Thomas . Alianak . Sonia . 11 May 2022 . Cambridge Scholars .
  56. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam defines Talfiq as "Legal term describing the derivation of rules from material of various schools of Islamic law." Web site: Talfiq . Oxford Islamic Studies Online . 2008-05-06 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170209012124/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2323?_hi=0&_pos=8 . dead . February 9, 2017 . 2021-09-19.
  57. GHAFUR. ABDUL . Islamization of Laws in Pakistan: Problems and Prospects . Islamic Studies. 26 . 3. 271. 20839846. 1987 .
  58. News: GSRC. Degree overview: Theology and religion. 19 October 2015. 2015. Most theology schools are based in a religious tradition—a specific sect or denomination of a major religion (i.e., a branch of Rabbinical Judaism, a Catholic order, or a school of Buddhism); a general foundation in a major religion (i.e., nondenominational Islam or Christianity).
  59. Book: Pollack. Kenneth. Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy . Simon and Schuster. 2014 . 29 . 9781476733920. registration. Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims.
  60. Book: Mustapha . Abdul Raufu . Sects & Social Disorder: Muslim Identities & Conflict in Northern Nigeria . 2014 . 54 . Boydell & Brewer . 9781847011077 . ... the Ahmadiyya (3%), the 'something else' (2%), the 'Just a Muslim' (42%), and the 'Don't Know' (4%) (Pew 2010, 21). Most of the 'Just a Muslim' are also likely to be Sunni-inclined.
  61. Book: Torfs. Rik. Islam, Europe and Emerging Legal Issues. 2012. 29. The Turkish government maintained that religious instruction was mandatory because it was objective, pluralist and neutral, that is nondenominational ... The perception of the applicants was totally different ... they argued that the teaching was done from the perspective of Sunni Islam.
  62. Section 2: Religious Beliefs and Practices, Pew Research Center
  63. Book: Testerman . Janet . Transforming From Christianity to Islam: Eight Women's Journey . 2014 . 13 . Cambridge Scholars . 9781443862004 . If people ask me “What are you, Sufi, Shiite or Sunni?” I say No, I'm just a Muslim. I follow the Quran as much as I can, and if I have questions I go to scholars, but I don't get myself involved in any divisions..
  64. Book: Roelle. Patrick. Islam's Mandate- a Tribute to Jihad: The Mosque at Ground Zero. 2006. 374. In a 2006 survey of 1,000 Muslim registered voters, about 12% identified themselves as Shi'a, 36% said they were Sunni, and 40% called themselves "just a Muslim", according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR)..
  65. Book: Aamir. Omer. professor Fatima Mustafa. Federalism and Pakistan. 2013. Their dream of turning the conflict into an Arab against the Shiite's is turning into a reality. A dark twisted reality for the liberal non denominational Muslims.
  66. News: Kennedy. Lisa. Film review: "Timbuktu" depicts the beautiful and the brutal. 21 October 2015. The Denver Post. 2015. In town, the jihadists have begun imposing Shariah laws on the locals. Many of the citizens are already devout, if non-denominational Muslims, but this pushes them..
  67. Web site: Do Not Mistake a Pious Muslim for a Terrorist. March 21, 2017.
  68. News: Kirkham. Bri. Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive. 21 October 2015. 2015. Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20151125113410/http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive. 25 November 2015.
  69. Web site: Contemporary Islam, Non-Denominational: NDM. 2021-09-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175103/http://www.muslimcouncilofamerica.org/mca/islam-non-denominational-ndm/. 2021-01-25. dead. www.muslimcouncilofamerica.org.
  70. Web site: Preface. Pew Research Center. August 9, 2012.
  71. Web site: 16 Sep 2017. UK Mosque Statistics / Masjid Statistics. MuslimsInBritain.org.
  72. Book: Bowen . Innes . Medina in Birmingham, Najaf in Brent . 2014 . . 7 . 9781849043014 .
  73. Book: Nielsen . Jorgen S . Exploring the Multitude of Muslims in Europe . 2018 . . 111–114 . In fact, as a large number of Lithuanian converts to Islam, who are both rank and file of "Education and Heritage", are of non-denominational and / or revivalist leanings, with some of them identifying with Salafi creed, it is best to be described as a denominationally nondescript organisation..
  74. Book: University of California . Pierce v. LaVallee . Federal supplement. [First Series.] ]. 868 . Volume 212 . A non-denominational Muslim. I am not registered with any particular sect”. He was an active member of the Muslim Brotherhood; was acquainted with its constitution and took the oath described therein.
  75. Book: van Nieuwkerk . Karin . Moving In and Out of Islam . 2018 . 73 . University of Texas Press . 9781477317488 .
  76. Book: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research . Conference Proceedings . 1958 . The Institute . Volume 6 . In the library of the Ansar-ud-Din training college at Otta, a non-denominational Muslim institution, all the books in the Islamic section are by Ahmadis, with the exception of two by Western Orientalists.
  77. Book: Burhani . An . Hating the Ahmadiyya: the place of "heretics" in contemporary Indonesian Muslim society . 2014 . 133–152 . or heresy by various Muslim institutions in both India and Pakistan, the region of its origin, as well as other Muslim countries, including Indonesia.
  78. Web site: Religious Beliefs in Morocco . 25 April 2017 .
  79. Book: Cultural and Heritage Tourism in the Middle East and North Africa: Complexities, Management and Practices . 9781000177169 . Seyfi . Siamak . Michael Hall . C. . 28 September 2020 . Routledge .
  80. Islam in South Asia: A Short History - Page 491, Jamal Malik - 2008
  81. Defence Journal - Volume 10, Issues 9-11 - Page 35, Ikram ul-Majeed Sehgal - 2007
  82. Book: Rethinking Salafism: The Transnational Networks of Salafi 'Ulama in Egypt, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia . 978-0-19-094895-5 . Ismail . Raihan . 2021 . Oxford University Press .
  83. Book: A Comparative History of Catholic and Aš'arī Theologies of Truth and Salvation: Inclusive Minorities, Exclusive Majorities . 9789004461765 . Abdelnour . Mohammed Gamal . 25 May 2021 . BRILL .
  84. Web site: The aim and objective of the Tolu-e-Islam. Tolu-e-Islam. 24 September 2015.
  85. News: Longton. Gary Gurr. Isis Jihadist group made me wonder about non-denominational Muslims. 21 October 2015. The Sentinel. 2014. THE appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgmental.. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20170326065118/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/isis-jihadist-group-wonder-non-denominational/story-21340790-detail/story.html. 26 March 2017.
  86. Web site: Hunter. Faruq. The mosque of the real imam yahya davis. We are Muslims! 100% non-denominational, 100% non-judgmental, 100% dedicated to helping the people.
  87. Web site: Brackley . Paul . In-depth: Guests at opening of Cambridge Central Mosque admire stunning architecture and eco-friendly design . Cambridge Independent . 2019-12-05 . 2021-09-19.
  88. Web site: The mystery of 73 sects . 9 August 2013 .
  89. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=deNfpU7HUJMC&pg=PA24&dq=The+non-sectarian+tone+of+the+poems+of+Hafiz+struck+Debendra-+nath&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi7rNPRkdSHAxVizAIHHXVWKfUQ6AF6BAgIEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  90. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QIKEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA198&dq=Akbar+declared+he+would+no+longer+tolerate+sectarian+disputes+disrupting+the+public+order&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjv9ojHs-OHAxVsQEEAHcI3CdYQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  91. Book: Cughtai. Muhammad Ikram. Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence. 2005. 454. Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al-Afghani refused to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam..
  92. Web site: American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:2 . Hosen . Nadirsyah . Salem . Ahmed Ali . Rashid . Samory . Reda . Nevin .
  93. Book: Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society . 978-0-8014-6489-8 . Ende . Werner . Steinbach . Udo . 15 December 2011 . Cornell University Press .
  94. News: Ahmed. Khaled. Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni?. 23 October 2015. The Friday Times. https://web.archive.org/web/20111117111449/http://www.thefridaytimes.com/24122010/page27.shtml. 17 November 2011. dead.
  95. Junid. Sanusi. Iqbal and Muslim Unity. Intellectual Discourse. 2002. 10. 2, 115–124. 116. International Islamic University Malaysia. Iqbal's vision was Ummatic and hence he should be referred to as "the poet philosopher of Muslim unity.".
  96. Book: Jones. Justin. Shi'a Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism. 24 October 2011. 25–26. Cambridge University Press . 9781139501231.
  97. Junid. Sanusi. Iqbal and Muslim Unity. Intellectual Discourse. 2002. 10. 2, 115–124. 120. International Islamic University Malaysia. Iqbal was no longer writing for Indian Muslims alone but for his coreligionists scattered all over the world. He had switched from Urdu to Persian to make his message available to the largest number of the adherents of Islam..
  98. Book: Sectarianism without Sects . 978-0-19-765032-5 . Bishara . Azmi . March 2022 . Oxford University Press .
  99. News: Man of the moment . The Economist .
  100. Book: Faisal I of Iraq . 978-0-300-12732-4 . Allawi . Ali A. . 11 March 2014 . Yale University Press .
  101. Web site: The aim and objective of the Tolu-e-Islam. Tolu-e-Islam. 24 September 2015.
  102. Book: Words of a Leader Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan al Nahyan Father . 2018 . دائرة الثقافة والسياحة – أبوظبي، مركز أبوظبي للغة العربية، إصدارات . 978-9948-39-978-0 .
  103. Book: Saudi Arabia and the Path to Political Change: National Dialogue and Civil Society . 978-0-85772-407-6 . Thompson . Mark C. . 16 June 2014 . Bloomsbury .
  104. Book: Parallel Religious Revolutions in Britain in 1688 and Egypt in 2013 . 978-1-5275-8155-5 . West . Thomas . Alianak . Sonia . 11 May 2022 . Cambridge Scholars .
  105. Book: Parallel Religious Revolutions in Britain in 1688 and Egypt in 2013 . 978-1-5275-8155-5 . West . Thomas . Alianak . Sonia . 11 May 2022 . Cambridge Scholars .

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