Kalam Explained

Kalam should not be confused with Qalam.

Ilm al-Kalam (Arabic: عِلْم ٱلْكَلَام|translit=ʿilm al-kalām|lit=science of discourse),[1] often shortened to kalam, is the scholastic, speculative, or philosophical study of Islamic theology (aqida).[2]

It is a controversial science since some scholars state kalām was formed out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islam against the philosophical doubters.[3] [4] Meanwhile, hostile criticisms and rejections towards kalam as theological study are quite prevalent among major Sunni Madhhab scholars, such as Hanafi, Hanbali Maliki, Shafi'i, and Zahiri.[5] As they viewed it not following Islamic teaching.

On the other hand, it gained acceptance in Twelver Shi'ism. According to Morteza Motahhari, It is a science that fundamental for Islamic faith doctrine or usul al-din, proving their validity, or refuting doubts regarding them.[6]

Etymology

Many definitions exist for Kalam. One definition is that kalām is the science which is concerned with firmly establishing religious beliefs by adducing proofs and with banishing doubts". Al-Farabi in his Iḥṣāʾ al-ʿulūm defined kalam as "a science which enables a man to procure the victory of the dogmas and actions laid down by the Legislator of the religion, and to refute all opinions contradicting them". A common synonym is ʿilm al-tawḥīd "science of the Unity of God", also known as ʿilm al-manṭiq (Arabic: عِلْم المنطق|lit=science of logic|links=no) or ʿilm al-lāhūt (Arabic: عِلْم ٱللَّاهُوت|lit=science of theology|links=no).[7] [8] [9] According to Sabine Schmidtke, of kalām has changed depending on the time and context and who it was used by.

The term kalām means "speech", "word", or "utterance". There are many possible interpretations as to why this discipline was originally called so; one is that one of the widest controversies in this discipline, in the second and third centuries of Hijra, has been about whether the "Word of God" (kalām Allāh), as revealed in the Quran, is an eternal attribute of God and therefore not created, or whether it is created words.[10]

A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimun), a role distinguished from those of Islamic philosophers and jurists.[11]

History

In early Islam, the Ahl al-Kalām or "Kalamites" essentially referred to the Muʿtazila, in addition to other smaller schools. Historian Daniel W. Brown describes Ahl al-Kalām as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam: the Ahl al-Ra'y and Ahl al-Hadith being the other two. (Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later ahl al-Kalām", suggesting the ahl al-Kalām were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites.[12]) The Ahl al-Kalām' agreed with the Ahl al-Hadith that the example of Muhammad was authoritative. Still, they did not believe it to be divine revelation, a status that only the Quran had according to their view[13] It also rejected the authority of the hadith because its corpus was "filled with contradictory, blasphemous, and absurd" reports, and that in jurisprudence, even the smallest doubt about a source was too much. Thus, they believed the true legacy of Muhammad was to be found elsewhere, i.e. in the sunnah, which is separate from the hadith.

Earliest oppositions of the doctrine of kalam, such as a tabi'un and Atharism scholar Amir al-Sha'bi, who denounced the use of Qiyas (Jurisprudensic analogy deduction), which used by his contemporary scholar Ibrahim al-Nakha'i who followed Ahl ar-Ra'y school and used analogies in theology. He also tried to convince other scholars that Qiyās was not a valid argument. Al-Sha'bi was recorded to have said: "Beware of Qiyās. For when you use it, you make what is halal to be haram and what is haram to be halal.".[14]

As early as in the times of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the history of Islam, according to historian Majid Fakhry.[15] One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews".[15] Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the predestination of sinners to hell on the one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the Traditions) into some internal harmony".[15] Other factors that might have led the establishment of kalam was an effort by some Islamic scholars to oppose the thoughs of Zandaqa in the Islamic world.[16] According to his own admission, Abu Hanifa, the founder of Hanafi school; was once observed kalam and became prominent scholar of the subject. However, he was later lost his confidence about kalam after he cannot solve the issue about Talaq (Divorce in Islam). Thus Abu Hanifah decided to completely abandon kalam and instead pursue the jurisprudence study under a tabi'un scholar named Hammad ibn Abu Sulaiman.[17] Within the span of the rest of his life, Abu Hanifa has interractions with the following generation of kalam scholars, which causing him to grew more worse opinion about kalam, as Abu Hanifa found out they often rejecting the scripts of Qur'an and Hadith whenever it contradict with logic. From then on, the Hanafi scholars started their hostilites against the kalam scholars. Abu Yusuf, one of the best pupil of Abu Hanifa, even engaged in fierce debate against Bishr ibn Ghiyath al-Marisi, prominent mutakallim and disciple of Jahm bin Safwan.[18]

Ahl al-Hadith prevailed over the Ahl al-Kalām (and Muslims, or at least mainstream Muslims, now accept the authority of the hadith), so that most of what is known about their arguments comes from the writings of their opponents, such as Imam al-Shafi'i.[19] Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi has recorded the scholars of kalam have low opinion towards Abu Hanifah and Al-Shafi'i, as they usually speaks derogatory comments regarding those founders of two Islamic jurisprudence madhhabs. Furthermore, al-Suyuti has recorded the detail of al-Shafi'i has defeated Bishr ibn Ghiyath al-Marisi, prominent kalam scholar; in a debate by pointing out that kalam was never in accordance of Qur'an and Hadith.

One of the most notable episode of Mu'tazila conflict with the Atharist orthodoxy in early medieval period was during the reign of Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun, where the long feud of Mu'tazila Quran creationism doctrine opposed by the scripturalists (Atharism) doctrine that Quran as shifat (attribution) of God which championed by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of Hanbali school.[20] [21] [22] [23] Ibn Battah has recorded in his work, Al-Ibāna , that Ahmad ibn Hanbal has instructed his students of total academic boycott against the scholars of kalam.[24] Furthermore, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also recorded engaged in long debates against the leading Mu'tazilite and qadi of caliphate, Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad regarding the said matter about the nature of Quran.[25] The Hanbali scholars and followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal rarely mention about kalam in their teaching, as they consider it as bid'ah (heresy). After the longtime persecution of Mihna towards the Ahl a-Hadith and Atharist scholars since the time of his great-grandfather, caliph al-Mutawakkil changed the caliphate policy by restoring them to favor, while abandoning Mu'tazilites led by Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad.[26] The caliph also attempted to reconcile with Ahmad ibn Hanbal, and finally, in March 852, he ordered that all prisoners held on account of the innquisition against the atharists be released.[27]

The following era hostile view towards kalam was apparent; most notably among the later era Atharists who quite often subsumed under the Hanbali madhhab (school of thought).

Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari, a 9-10th century AD Shafi'ite scholar; perhaps considered as paradoxical figure among the Shafi'ite school, as he along with his followers struggle to oppose the kalam doctrine of Mu'tazilite scholars. However, since he engaged the debates against Mu'tazilite using the philosophical instruments such Tamthil (Theological analogic deduction), Ta'til (deprivation of divine attributes) and Takwil (Esoteric interpretation) methods as exegesis of Qur'an and Hadith; al-Ash'ari was later criticized by his colleagues among the Shafi'ite scholars, as Abu al-Abbas al-Karji, a leading Shafi'ite jurist of that time; has recorded the consensus of Shafi'ite schools (consisted other notable Shafi'ite jurists such as Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi and Abu Bakar ar-Raziqani among others) has opposed the those methods of Abu Hasan, as they thought Abu Hasan has abandoned the scripturalist method of Qur'an and Hadith exegesis. Meanwhile, another Shafi'ite scholar Abu al-Abbas as-Suraij also release his separate verdict denouncing the Ash'arite method of Takwil and Tamthil.[28]

During the rule of Umayyad state of Córdoba in medieval Iberian Peninsula; Ibn Hazm has recorded that the study of kalam has developed in his area, although Ibn Hazm stated he and his colleagues rejected their practices and chosen the Ahl al-Hadith's creed of textualism. Ibn Hazm also testified the spread of Ash'arite kalam scholarships also appeared in Kairouan, and Sicily.

According to Ibn Khaldun in his work, Muqaddimah; the later era of kalam philosophy penetration into Islamic theology was reintroduced by al-Ghazali, follower of al-Ash'ari. Later schools of Kalam like the Kullabis, Asharites and Matuiridis would develop systems that would defend the core orthodox creedal points of Islam completely on rational grounds, and were open to engaging in philosophy alongside the Quran and hadith.

Scholars assessments

There are different views regarding kalam as theological discipline.

According to British religion researcher Clinton Bennett, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond the category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people.[29] This picture has been questioned by scholarship that attempts to show that kalām was, in fact, a demonstrative rather than a dialectical science and was always intellectually creative.[30]

However, Islam theology researcher Jeffry R. Halverson has stated that many Islamic orthodox scholars has regarded the science of kalam as kind of heretical innovation and Heterodoxy opinion.[31]

Opposing views

Abu Hanifah, founder of Hanafi school, was recorded to fiercely denounce kalam. He was recorded to scold a kalam scholar Amr ibn Ubayd: "May Allah curse Amr bin Ubaid, since he has paved the way for people who study the science of Kalam, even though this science is useless to them.". Abu Hanifa also said: "(Kalam) are the word of the philosophers. You must follow the hadith of the Prophet sallallaahu ‘alaihi wasallam and the method of the salaf scholars. Stay away from any muhdath(innovation of theology), because it is a Bid'ah.".[32] [33]

Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim

contemporary of Abu Hanifah and his direct student, has stated that kalam was a science of stupidity, and even further saying that those who learn about kalam are most likely a zindiq (hypocrite).

Malik ibn Anas, founder of Maliki school; has recorded to express his disdain towards kalam, when a guest asking him about the essence of Qur'an, as he responded: "Perhaps you are one of the disciples of 'Amr bin 'Ubaid. May God curse 'Amr (bin 'Ubaid), he has made a bid'ah of the kalam (science), if kalam is a science, surely the companions (of the Prophet) and the Tabi'un have spoken (with kalam) regarding jurisprudence and shari'a rulings. However, (it is clear) that (the science of kalam) is falsehood and points to falsehood.".[34] [35] [36]

Al-Shafi‘i, founder of Shafi'i school, has reportedly opposing kalam. Abu al-Yazid al-'Ajmi, professor of Cairo University and Kuwait University; has recorded several discourses and poetries of al-Shafi'i which recorded by his pupil, Al-Muzani, and following era Shafi'ite scholar, Al-Dhahabi; that he abhors the kalam scholarships, as at one time he een stated that delving into kalam could resulted in atheism.[37] Rabi' ibn Sulayman another al-Shafi'i pupil; also reported the rejection of al-Shafi'i towards kalam,[38] and its scholars, the Mu'tazilite.[39] Al-Shafi'i goes as far as declaring that scholars of kalam "should be beaten with palm fronds, placed on camels, then paraded around the masses as punishment for abandoning Sunnah in favor of kalam".[40] [41] Al-Nawawi, a 13th AD Shafi'i school jurist, has recorded a compilation of al-Shafi'i quotes in his work, Al-Majmu, that he strongly forbid the teaching and learning of kalam.[42] [43]

Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of Hanbali school; once wrote a letter to the tenth caliph of Abbasid, Al-Mutawakkil,: "...I do not intend to speak in anything about this, except what is in the Book of Allah 'Azza wa Jalla, or what is in the hadith of the Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, or from his companions, or from the tabi'un. Apart from that, 'kalam' is not honorable...". Furthermore, Ahmad also accusing the scholars of kalam as hypocrite, in similar manner with Abu Yusuf of Hanafi school assessment about the supporters of kalam.[44]

Al-Lalaka'i has recorded that Ali ibn al-Madini, colleague of Ahmad ibn Hanbal; has completely reject kalam as part of Sunni Islam.

In 9th-10th AD, majority of Shafi'ite scholars such as Abu al-Abbas al-Karji, Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi, Abu Bakar ar-Raziqani, and Abu al-Abbas as-Suraij among others has stated they opposed the practice of logical reasonings of kalam, with the exception of ambivalent stance of Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari.

Ibn Hazm, a 10th AD scholar of Zahiri school from Al-Andalus; has stated his rejection towards kalam and adopting the Ahl al-Hadith's way of theology in accepting the daleel of Qur'an and Hadiths.[45] Ibn Hazm rejecting the kalam and qiyas methodology which used by the Ash'arites.[46]

Ibn 'Abd al-Barr, 11th AD Maliki scholar; stated that his contemporaries consensus agreed that kalam was not a part of Islam scholastic discipline and considered it as deviation.[47] [48] Ibn 'Abd al-Barr also claimed that opposing kalam was universal stance among the Maliki scholars of his era.

Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, 11th AD Hanbali scholar and Sufi cleric; wrote a treatise entitled Dhamm al-Kalam where he criticized the use of kalam.[49]

Ibn al-Jawzi, 12th AD Maliki scholar; has explained that that Ulama and Fiqh of his contemporary have considered kalam as "..useless discipline..". He described the kalam scholars progression was at first "because they were exposed to foreign literatures about philosophy...", then in the end they established kalam, which in practice damaged their creed of Islam.[50]

Ibn al-Sam'ani, 12th AD Shafi'ite scholar has explained that the reason why Ahl al-Hadith scholars agreed why kalam discouraged is due to human's reason and logic are fluctuating from time-to-time, subjective, and limited capabilities; thus its cannot be relied to understand the metaphysical aspects of Qur'an and Sunnah.[51] Thus as-Sam'ani postulated his own conclusion that the impossibility of using kalam for theology was due to the limitation of human's logical capability and the non uniformity of humanity's collective reasons to agree in even single metaphysical matters. In the end, as-Sam'ani also ruling out that the philosophy of theology, such as kalam, was forbidden, and every metaphysical matters from Qur'an and Hadith should be approached solely by Aqidah or creed, not by subjective individual reasonings.

Ibn al-Salah, 13th AD Shafi'ite scholar; have expressed his negative view by saying kalam is "the source of foolishness, strayness and confusion..."; while also added it is damaging their creed (to Islam) and encourage the heresy.

Ibn Qudama, 13th AD Hanbali scholar; harshly criticized kalam as one of the worst of all heresies. He characterized their scholars, the mutakallimūn, as innovators and heretics who had betrayed and deviated from the simple and pious faith of the early Muslims.[52]

Ibn Rajab, 14th AD Hanbali scholar; has observed that those who observing kalam tends to become a full blown philosopher.

Al-Suyuti, the 15th century Shafi'ite scholar; has claimed his contempt against kalam.[53] However, his stance were quite ambivalent as like like his predecessor, al-Ghazali.[54] This stance caused him to garner criticism from Muhammad ibn Ismail Al-Amir as-San'ani, a 18th AD Imam of Yemen (1687 - 1768); who argues the methodology of al-Suyuti exegesis in theology was incorrect in accordance of the Atharism traditions which based on the opinions of the Companions of the Prophet.[55] Furthermore, Tafsir al-Jalalayn work of al-Suyuti also criticized by 21th century Salafi scholar Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri, as al-Suyuti implemented ta'til method on interpreting Al-Fajr ns. .[56]

Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, a 15th AD Shafi'i scholar; has stated in his work, Bulugh al-Maram, that the practice of kalam or qiyas (analogy) was already discouraged even from the era of Companions of the Prophet. Ibn Hajar claimed this by quoting a hadith from Sunan Abi Dawud, which transmitted a hadith regarding the Wudu with the authority from Ali, fourth Rashidun caliph. In said hadith, Ali has narrated "If the religion is based on logical reason, the lower part of the khuf (sandal) should be rubbed (in Wudu ablution) instead the upper part. (however) I verily once saw the Messenger of Allah, may God bless him and grant him peace, wipe the top of both his khufs.". Ibn Hajr concluded this hadith as ruling out the use of kalam.[57] [58] In his other book, Fath al-Bari, Ibn Hajar also stated that kalam is ignoble method, as it was not exemplified by Salaf generation (Sahaba/companions of the prophet, Tabi'un, and Tabi' al-Tabi'in).

Al-Shawkani, a 18th AD Atharism,[59] [60] and Zahiri scholar,[61] early Salafi movement figure, and[62] [63] [64] [65] and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab contemporary;[66] [67] has expressed his view for literal theological interpretation and opposition to kalam (speculative theology)[68] [69] [70] [71] [72]

Rashid Rida, 19th century AD reformer of Islamics school;[73] in his later years of life has perceived the Athari theology as more rational than Kalam and actively condemning Kalam, as he view the Athari methodology had stronger religious foundations of Islam. Furthermore, he also saw the Ash'arite theology as ineffective against philosophical doubts.[74]

Al-Albani, prominent figure of Salafism and modern era Hadith scholar; considered kalam doctrine as misguided in the Islamic creed due to their Ta'til methodology, which consequently divesting the Names of God in Islam. Al-Albani stated the notable example was the rejection of kalam scholars of the al-ʿAliyy (Most highest) attribute of God.[75]

Manzoor Elahi, 21th century AD Bangladeshi Salafi scholar and academic; has stated in his book "The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Reforming Society" edited by Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria says about Ilmul Kalam,[76]

Similar sentiment were also stated by ʻUthmān ibn Jumʻah Ḍumayrīyah, an Islamic theology professor of University of Sharjah and Umm al-Qura University; that kalam science inherently contradicts the Islamic creed of al-Burooj ns. chapter regarding the attribute of God's name as omnipotent (al-Jabbār); which contain the attribute of capability to perform any wills (yurīd). ʻUthmān views that kalam's doctrine omitted such attribute by human's logic only.

Supporting views

Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad, 9th AD leading judge of Abbasid caliphate, successor of Wasil ibn Ata's teaching,[77] and a rival of Ahmad ibn Hanbal;[78] was a supporter of kalam study.[79]

Another Shafi'ite scholars who take the stance to defend the use of kalam was Al-Bayhaqi,[80] and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.[81] [82] There is confusion of original al-Shafi'i's stance towards kalam as Modern western orientalist Duncan Black MacDonald reported al-Shafi'i held the view that well-taught scholars should observe kalam to defend and purify Islam, while warn the usage against common peoples.[83] This contradictionary report about al-Shafi'i stance were traced to be the opinions of al-Bayhaqi, and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. Muhammad ibn Abd al-wahhab al-'Aqil, Islamic theology professor of Islamic University of Madinah and member of Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Dawah, and Guidance; has recorded that both al-Razi and al-Bayhaqi were disturbed to found out the founder of their Madhhab school, al-Shafi'i, has opposed kalam, a field which they studied upon. Thus they interpreted the words of al-Shafi'i in contradictory way.

Al-Ghazali, 11 AD Shafi'ite scholar; held the view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty.[29]

Morteza Motahhari, Iranian Twelver Shia scholar and philosopher; stated that kalam science could beneficial for speech and discourse.[84] He also proposed reason is that the name originated from the habit of its scholars of starting the discussions in their books with "al-kalamu fi kadha". Yet another reason is that people who were involved in this discipline discussed issues (and as such were involved in kalam about these issues) in which Ahl al-Hadith remained silent. Other reason of Morteza support of kalam is because its important for a mihna resulted from the discussion in this discipline of whether the Quran, which is regarded as the kalam of Allah, is created (makhluq) or not.

Sunni kalam school

Shia kalam school

Appendix

References

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Abdel-Haleem . M. A. S. . Muhammad Abdel-Haleem . 2008 . Part I: Historical perspectives - Qur’an and hadith . https://books.google.com/books?id=O1IiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 . Winter . Timothy . Timothy Winter . The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology . . . 19–32 . 10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.002 . 9781139001816.
  2. Web site: Mutahhari. Murtada. Qara'i. 'Ali Quli . An Introduction to 'Ilm al-Kalam. muslimphilosophy. 29 March 2018.
  3. Book: Treiger, Alexander . 2016 . 2014 . Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period - Origins of Kalām . https://books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 . Schmidtke . Sabine . Sabine Schmidtke . The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology . . . 27–43 . 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.001 . 9780199696703 . 2016935488.
    Book: Abrahamov, Binyamin . 2016 . 2014 . Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period - Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology . https://books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA264 . Schmidtke . Sabine . Sabine Schmidtke . The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology . . . 264–279 . 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025 . 9780199696703 . 2016935488.
  4. Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p. 391.
  5. Book: Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs (Egypt) research team . Artawijaya . Masturi Ilham . M. Abidin Zuhdi . Khalifurrahman Fath . Ensiklopedi Aliran dan Madzhab Di Dunia Islam . Encyclopedia of Schools and Schools of Thought in the Islamic World . 2015 . . . 664 . 14 August 2024 . Id.
  6. Web site: Morteza Motahhari . Morteza Motahhari . An Introduction to Ilm al-Kalam . 12 March 2013 . 2023-10-31 . For a definition of 'ilm al-kalam, it is sufficient to say that, "It is a science which studies the basic doctrines of the Islamic faith (usul al-Din). It identifies the basic doctrines and seeks to prove their validity and answers any doubts which may be cast upon them.".
  7. Book: Muzaffar Uddin Nadvi (Syed) . Muslim Thought and Its Source . 1960 . M. Ashraf . 7 . 13 August 2024.
  8. Book: Gerardette Philips . Ziaul Haq . Mochamad . Buku Ajar Studi Islam: Perspektif Integritas Terbuka . Study Islam learning book:Open integrity perspective . 2022 . Prodi S2 Studi Agama-Agama UIN Sunan Gunung Djati . . 6239980544 . 65 . 13 August 2024 . Id.
  9. [:ar:عبد الرزاق البدر|Abd ar-Razaq al-Badr]
  10. Encyclopedia: Gardet . Louis . 1978 . Kalām . Bosworth . C. E. . Clifford Edmund Bosworth . van Donzel . E. J. . Emeri Johannes van Donzel . Heinrichs . W. P. . Wolfhart Heinrichs . Lewis . B. . Pellat . Ch. . Charles Pellat . Dumont . C. . Paterson . M. . . . . 4 . 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0421 . 978-90-04-16121-4.
  11. Clinton Bennett, The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies, p. 119. .
  12. [#DWBRTMIT1996|Brown, ''Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought'', 1996]
  13. [#DWBRTMIT1996|Brown, ''Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought'', 1996]
  14. Book: Ibn Qutaybah . Ibn Qutaybah . Muḥyī d-Dīn al-Aṣfar . Muḥammad . Taʾwīl muḫtalif al-ḥadīṯ . 1999 . al-Maktab al-Islāmī . Beirut . 110 . 5 August 2024 . Ar.
  15. Book: Fakhry, Majid . second . A History of Islamic Philosophy . . New York . 1983 . xvii-xviii .
  16. Web site: Mutahhari . Murtadha . Morteza Motahhari . An Introduction to Ilm al-Kalam . 2023-10-31 . al-islam.org . 12 March 2013 . These were: embracing of Islam by various nations who brought with them a series of (alien) ideas and notions; mixing and coexistence of the Muslims with people of various religions, such as, the Jews, the Christians, the Magians, and the Sabaeans, and the ensuing religious debates and disputes between the Muslims and those peoples; the emergence of the Zanadiqah in the Islamic world - who were totally against religion - as a result of the general freedom during the rule of the 'Abbasid Caliphs (as long as it did not interfere in the matters of state politics); the birth of philosophy in the Muslim world - which by itself gave birth to doubts and skeptical attitudes..
  17. Book: Muhammad ibn Abdur Rahman Al-Khamees . كتاب اعتقاد الأئمة الأربعة . The Book of the Belief of the Four Imams . 1992 . دار العاصمة . 22 . 9 August 2024 . Ar . Tarikh Baghdad. XIII/page 333, Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi; Dzamm ‘Ilm al-Kalam, page. 28-31, al-Harawi.
  18. Web site: Yazid bin Abdul Qadir Jawas . Yazid bin Abdul Qadir Jawas . Dalil 'Aqli (Akal) Yang Benar Akan Sesuai Dengan Dalil Naqli/Nash Yang Shahih: Penjelasan Kaidah Keenam Dalil aqli (akal) yang benar akan sesuai dengan dalil Naqli/nash yang shahih . The correct 'Aqli (reason) argument will be in accordance with the authentic Naqli/Nash argument: Explanation of the Sixth Rule The correct aqli (reason) argument will be in accordance with the authentic Naqli/Nash argument . Almanhaj . 13 November 2012 . 10 August 2024. Chapter 6 of= Book: 2006. id. Syarah Aqidah Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'ah. Pustaka Imam As-Syafi'i. 978-979-3536-64-4. 949744119. References from:
  19. [#DWBRTMIT1996|Brown, ''Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought'', 1996]
  20. Book: Walid ibn Muhammad Nabih ibn Sayf an-Nashr . ibn ‘Ied al-Abbasi . Muhammad . أصول السنة . Principle of Sunnah . 1996 . Maktaba Ibn Taymiyyah . 50 . 9 August 2024 . Ar . Footnote 13.
  21. W. Williams. Aspects of the Creed of Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal: A Study of Anthropomorphism in Early Islamic Discourse . 2002 . International Journal of Middle East Studies . 34 . 3 . 441–463 . Cambridge University Press . 10.1017/S0020743802003021 . En.
  22. Book: Shaukat Ali . Millenarian and Messianic Tendencies in Islamic History . 1993 . Publishers United . 118 . 9 August 2024 . En.
  23. Book: Pemikiran Islam di Malaysia: sejarah dan aliran . 1997 . Gema Insani . 9795614304 . 137 . 9 August 2024 . Ms.
  24. Book: brahim bin ‘Amir Ar-Ruhaili . Sikap Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah terhadap Ahli Bid'ah dan Pengikut Hawa Nafsu (Jilid: 2) . The Attitude of Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah towards Heretics and Followers of Lust (Volume: 2) . 2019 . Darul Falah . 978-9793036748 . 96–97 . 12 August 2024 . Id.
  25. Book: Musthafa Said Al-khin . Zirzis . Muhammad Misbah . Achmad . Sejarah Ushul Fikih . History of Ushul Fiqih . 2014 . Pustaka Al-Kautsar . East Jakarta, Id . 235 . 9 August 2024 . Id.
  26. ; ; .
  27. ; ; ; ; .
  28. Web site: Abu Ihsan Al Atsary . Apakah Al Asy'ariyyah Termasuk Ahlu Sunnah? . Is Al Ash'ariyah included as Ahl as-sunnah? . 2004 . Almanhaj . Yayasan Lajnah Istiqomah (Lajnah Istiqomah institute) . 9 August 2024 . Surakarta, Id . Id. concise reference text from:
    • Book: Al-Lalaka'i . Al-Lalaka'i . ibn Saad ibn Hamdan al-Ghamdi . Ahmad . كتاب شرح أصول اعتقاد أهل السنة والجماعة. A book explaining the principles of the belief of the Sunnis and the community . 2003 . دار طيبة . Sa . 1 . 157–165 . Ar . 9 August 2024 . https://archive.org/details/a1715n . 9 August 2024.
    • Book: Ibn 'Abd al-Barr . Ibn 'Abd al-Barr . al-Zuhairi . Abu al-`Ashbal . كتاب جامع بيان العلم وفضله. A comprehensive book explaining knowledge and its merits . 1994 . مطابع الفرزدق التجارية . Riyadh, Sa . 2 . 96 . Ar . 9 August 2024 . https://archive.org/details/a1715n . 9 August 2024.
    • Book: Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya . Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya . Abdullah al-Mu'taq . 'Awad . اجتماع الجيوش الإسلامية . The Gathering of the Islamic Armies . 1988 . مطابع الفرزدق التجارية . Riyadh, Sa . 238–239 . Ar . 9 August 2024 . https://archive.org/details/IDTIMULDUJILISLAMIJJEHalarbiLMuaaletiWeLDehmijjehIbnQajimElDewzijjeh . 9 August 2024.
    • Book: Ibn Taymiyyah . Ibn Taymiyyah . ibn Ibrahim al-Ajlan . Muhammad . التسعينية . The Nineties . 1999 . مكتبة المعارف للنشر والتوزيع . Riyadh, Sa . 238–239 . 9 August 2024 . Ar.
  29. Book: Bennett . Clinton . The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies . Bloomsbury Academic . 2012 . 978-1441127884 . 119.
  30. Book: Philosophical Theology in Islam: Later Ashʿarism East and West. 2020-05-06. Brill. 978-90-04-42661-0. 299. en. 10.1163/9789004426610. Shihadeh . Ayman . Thiele . Jan . 216289385 .
  31. Book: Jeffry R. Halverson . Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism . 2010 . 33–57 . https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230106581_3 . 9 August 2024 . SpringerLink . En . 2: The Demise of ’Ilm al-Kalam. 10.1057/9780230106581_3 . 978-0-230-10658-1 .
  32. Book: Mahmud ibn Abdul Rahman Qadh . منازل الأئمة الأربعة أبي حنيفة ومالك والشافعي وأحمد . The place of the four imams Abu Hanifa, Malik, Al-Shafi'i and Ahmad . 2002 . . 161 . 9 August 2024 . https://archive.org/details/20200130_20200130_1402 . 30 January 2020 . Ar.
  33. Web site: أرشيف ملتقى أهل التفسير . Al-Maktaba . 9 August 2024 . Dzamm al-Kalam, page 194-B, al-Haramawi.
  34. Book: Al-Dhahabi . Al-Dhahabi . سير أعلام النبلاء. Biographies of the Noble Figures . 2001 . مؤسسة الرسالة . 193 . 9 August 2024 . Ar . 9.
  35. Web site: Matan Abd al-Rahman bin Ahmad Razi . Nasser ibn Abdul Rahman bin Muhammad Al-Jadee’ . احادیث فی ذم الکلام و اهله (منتخبة من رد السلمی علی اهل الکلام) . tebyan.net . 9 August 2024 . عن عبد الرحمن بن مهدي أنه قال من طلب العربية فآخره مؤدب ومن طلب الشعر فآخره شاعر يهجو أو يمدح بالباطل ومن طلب.
  36. Web site: Muslim Al-Atsary . Pengaruh Ilmu Kalam di Dalam Ushul Fiqih . Influence of kalam science in Ushul Fiqh . 2021 . bimbinganislam.com . Bimbingan Islam (BIAS) institute . 9 August 2024 . Id . Ahadits fii Dzammil Kalam wa Ahlihi, p. 96-97.
  37. Book: Akidah Islam Menurut Empat Madzhab . Islamic creed according to the Imam of four Madhhabs . Abul Yazid Abu Zaid Al-'Ajmi. 2012 . Pustaka Al - Kautsar. . 978-979-592-592-7 . 357–368 . 12 August 2024 . Id.
  38. Book: Al-Dhahabi . Al-Dhahabi . Shu'ayb al-Arna'ut . التاريخ والتراجم سير أعلام النبلاء . History and Translations: Biographies of the Noble Figures . 2001م . مؤسسة الرسالة . 18 . 8 August 2024 . Ar . 10 . لا تشتغل بالكلام فإني اطلعتُ من أهل الكلام على التعطيل.
  39. Book: Kecia Ali . Imam Shafi'i: Scholar and Saint . 2011 . Simon and Schuster . 978-1780740041 . 8 August 2024 . En . ....presumably in Egypt, he declared he hated kalam....
  40. Book: Ibn Taymiyya . Ibn Taymiyya . ibn 'Abdullah Al-Rajhi . 'Abd al-Aziz . كتاب شرح الحموية لابن تيمية - الراجحي . Explanation of Al-Hamwiyyah . الشبكة الإسلامية . 13 . 8 August 2024 . Ar . 11 . حكمي في أهل الكلام أن يُضربوا بالجريد ويحملوا على الإبل ويطاف بهم في العشائر والقبائل ويُنادى عليهم: هذا جزاء من ترك الكتاب والسنة وأقبل على الكلام.
  41. Web site: Yulian Purnama . Hukum Mempelajari Ilmu Kalam . The ruling of learning kalam . 2023 . konsultasisyariah.com . Yufid Network . 8 August 2024 . Id.
  42. Book: al-Nawawi . al-Nawawi . المجموع شرح المهذب . al-Majmu sharh al-muhadhab . مطبعة المنيرية . 9777011342 . 49 . 8 August 2024 . Ar . 1.
  43. Web site: Abul Aswad Al Bayati . Apakah Boleh Mempelajari Ilmu Kalam? . Is it allowed to learn kalam? . 2019 . bimbinganislam.com . Bimbingan Islam (BiAS) . 8 August 2024 . Id, Ar . وَقَدْ بَالَغَ إمَامُنَا الشَّافِعِيُّ رحمه الله تعالى:فِي تَحْرِيمِ الِاشْتِغَالِ بِعِلْمِ الْكَلَامِ أَشَدَّ مُبَالَغَةٍ، وَأَطْنَبَ فِي تَحْرِيمِهِ، وَتَغْلِيظِ الْعُقُوبَةِ لِمُتَعَاطِيهِ، وَتَقْبِيحِ فِعْلِهِ، وَتَعْظِيمِ الْإِثْمِ فِيهِ فَقَالَ: ” لَأَنْ يَلْقَى اللَّهُ الْعَبْدَ بِكُلِّ ذَنْبٍ مَا خَلَا الشِّرْكَ خَيْرٌ مِنْ أَنْ يَلْقَاهُ بِشَيْءٍ مِنْ الْكَلَامِ “، وَأَلْفَاظُهُ بِهَذَا الْمَعْنَى كَثِيرَةٌ مَشْهُورَةٌ.
  44. Book: Yazid bin Abdul Qadir Jawas . Yazid bin Abdul Qadir Jawas . Syarah 'Aqidah Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah; third edition . 2006 . Niaga Swadaya . 9793536640 . 74 . 9 August 2024 . Id.
  45. Book: Abd al-Aziz al-Tarifi . H. Masturi Ilham . M. Arif Khoiruddin . Malik Supar . Abd al-Aziz al-Tarifi . Yasir . Muhammad . Akidah Salaf Vs Ilmu Kalam Jilid 3: Akidah Al-Maghribiyah3 . Akidah Salaf Vs Ilmu Kalam Volume 3: creed of Al-Maghribiyah . 2022 . Pustaka Al-Kautsar . East Jakarta, Id . 33, 664 . 11 August 2024 . Id.
  46. Book: Muhammad Abed Al Jabiri . Aksin Wijaya . Kritik Wacana Teologi Islam . Criticism of Islamic Theological Discourse . 2019 . IRCiSoD . 6237378065 . 89 . 14 August 2024 . Id.
  47. Book: Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi . Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi . العقيدة الاعتصام . al-Aqidah al-I'tisham (creed of al-I'tisham) . 1992 . Dar Ibn Affan . 832 . 8 August 2024 . ar . 2 . Jami’ Bayanil Ilmi wa Fadhlihi, 2/942; Ibn Abd al-Barr . Salim ibn 'Ied al-Hilali . Saudi Arabia.
  48. Book: أرشيف ملتقى أهل الحديث . Archive of Ahl al-Hadith's forum . 2010 . المكتبة الشاملة الحديثة . 47 . 8 August 2024 . Ar . 6 . Jami’ Bayanil Ilmi wa Fadhlihi, 2/942; Ibn 'Abd al-Barr.
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    • Book: Ibn al-Jawzi . Ibn al-Jawzi . al-Masihi Suwaidan . Hassan . كتاب صيد الخاطر . Book of Hunting the Mind . 2004 . دار القلم . Damascus . 226 . 13 August 2024 . https://archive.org/details/aakamel18_gmail_20190131 . 31 January 2019 . Ar.
    • Book: Muhammad Ishaq Kandu . منهج الحافظ ابن حجر في العقيدة . The Methodology of Al-Hafiz Ibn Hajar in Creed . 2011 . موقع الدرر السنية على الإنترنت dorar.net . 13 August 2024 . 3 . 1446.
  51. Web site: Yusuf Abu Ubaidah as-Sidawy . 15 Alasan Kokohnya Aqidah Salaf Shalih . 15 Reasons Why the Faith of the Salaf Shalih is Solid . Yusuf Abu Ubaidah Official . 9 August 2024 . Id. concise reference text from: Book: 'Abdur Razzaq ibn 'Abd al-Muhsin Al-Badr . ثبات عقيدة السلف وسلامتها من التغيرات . The stability of the Salaf’s creed and its safety from changes . 2001 . Darul Fadhilah . Saudi Arabia . 9 August 2024 . Ar.
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  59. Book: The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. 2013. 978-0-691-13484-0. Bowering. Gerhard. Princeton, NJ. 506–507. "al-Shawkani, Muhammad b. ‘Ali (1760–1834)... dismissed speculative theology (kalām) and reason-based arguments as idle talk and was a staunch Salafi in matters of creed".
  60. Book: Haykel, Bernard. Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge University Press. 2003. 9780521528900. Cambridge, UK . 104. The Absolute Interpreter and Renewer of the Thirteenth Century AH. "Shawkänī, as was mentioned already, was opposed to kaläm, which he regarded as a science that led to more confusion than clarity for the believer. He admits that he felt confused by it (lam azdad bihā illā þpiratan) and he found it to consist of idle talk (khuza"balār)... Shawkānī appears to fit more properly, though perhaps not entirely, in the Hanbalī tradition, which rejected outright many of the theological claims made by the various schools of kalām.".
  61. Book: Ahmad Farid Al-Mazidi . المذهب العارف ومذاهب أخرى (دائرة المعارف -8-) . 2023 . f Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية‎. . 2745182641 . iii, 28, 31 . 20 August 2024.
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  63. Book: The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. 2013. 978-0-691-13484-0. Bowering. Gerhard. Princeton, NJ. 484, 506. "Shawkani .. is a prominent authority for the Salafi version of Islam".
  64. Book: Haykel, Hegghammer, Lacroix, Bernard, Thomas, Stéphane . Saudi Arabia in Transition: Insights on Social, Political, Economic and Religious Change. Cambridge University Press . 2015. 9781107006294 . New York, USA . 158 .
  65. Book: Orkaby, Asher . Yemen: What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press . 2021. 9780190932268. New York, USA . 120, 160 .
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  67. Web site: ul Haq. Asim. August 2011. Al Imam al-Shawkani (d. 1250H) on the Writings, Da'wah and Adversaries of Shaykh Muhammad Bin Abd Al-Wahhab . live. https://web.archive.org/web/20140724110456/http://www.wahhabis.com/articles/ytouz-imam-al-shawkani-d-1250h-on-the-writings-dawah-and-adversaries-of-shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhaab.cfm . 24 July 2014. 'Wahhabis'.com.
  68. Book: Moussa, Mohammed . Politics of the Islamic Tradition: The thought of Muhammad al-Ghazali . Routledge . 2016 . 978-1-138-84121-5 . New York, USA . 56–59 . 3: Renewal in the formation of the Islamic tradition.
  69. Book: Leaman, Oliver . Routledge Handbook of Islamic Ritual and Practice . Routledge . 2022 . 978-0-367-49123-9 . New York, NY . 128.
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  73. Olidort. Jacob. In Defense of Tradition: Muhammad Nasir Al-Din Al-Albani and the Salafi Method. Princeton University. 2015. Princeton, New Jersey, USA. 52–62. A New Curriculum: Rashīd Riḍā and Traditionalist Salafism. "Rashīd Riḍā presented these core ideas of Traditionalist Salafism, especially the purported interest in ḥadīth of the early generations of Muslims, as a remedy for correcting Islamic practice and belief during his time.".
  74. Book: Lauziere, Henri. The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. Columbia University Press. 2016. 978-0-231-17550-0. New York. 46 .
  75. Web site: Yusuf Abu Ubaidah as-Sidawy . 15 Alasan Kokohnya Aqidah Salaf Shalih . Do You Know Where Allah Is? . Yusuf Abu Ubaidah Official . 9 August 2024 . Id. concise reference text from: Book: Al-Albani . Al-Albani . Irwaul Ghalil . The stability of the Salaf’s creed and its safety from changes . 2003 . Najla Press . Saudi Arabia . 9 August 2024 . Ar . 1 . 113.
  76. Book: Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria. Ilahi . Muhammad Manzoor . Zakariya . Abu Bakr Muhammad . "Samāja sanskārē saṭhika ākīdāra gurutba" (The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Social Reformation). . Riyadh, Saudi Arabia . 11–12. 23 November 2022 . bn.
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  83. Book: Black Macdonald . Duncan . Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitutional Theory, Chapter=III . The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. 2008 . 978-1584778585 . 187.
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