The fuel economy of an automobile relates to the distance traveled by a vehicle and the amount of fuel consumed. Consumption can be expressed in terms of the volume of fuel to travel a distance, or the distance traveled per unit volume of fuel consumed. Since fuel consumption of vehicles is a significant factor in air pollution, and since the importation of motor fuel can be a large part of a nation's foreign trade, many countries impose requirements for fuel economy.
Different methods are used to approximate the actual performance of the vehicle. The energy in fuel is required to overcome various losses (wind resistance, tire drag, and others) encountered while propelling the vehicle, and in providing power to vehicle systems such as ignition or air conditioning. Various strategies can be employed to reduce losses at each of the conversions between the chemical energy in the fuel and the kinetic energy of the vehicle. Driver behavior can affect fuel economy; maneuvers such as sudden acceleration and heavy braking waste energy.
Electric cars do not directly burn fuel, and so do not have fuel economy per se, but equivalence measures, such as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent have been created to attempt to compare them.
The fuel efficiency of motor vehicles can be expressed in multiple ways:
The formula for converting to miles per US gallon (3.7854 L) from L/100 km is
| style | 235.215 |
| x |
x
| style | 282.481 |
| x |
In parts of Europe, the two standard measuring cycles for "litre/100 km" value are "urban" traffic with speeds up to 50 km/h from a cold start, and then "extra urban" travel at various speeds up to 120 km/h which follows the urban test. A combined figure is also quoted showing the total fuel consumed in divided by the total distance traveled in both tests.
Fuel economy can be expressed in two ways:
Conversions of units:
| Miles per US gallon → L/100 km: |
=\rm1 L/100 km | L/100 km → Miles per US gallon: |
=\rm1 mpgUS | |||||||
| Miles per Imperial gallon → L/100 km: |
=\rm1 L/100 km | L/100 km → Miles per Imperial gallon: |
=\rm1 mpgImp | |||||||
| Miles per US gallon → km/20 L: | \rm8.5 mpgUS=1 km/20 L | |||||||||
| L/100 km → km/20 L: |
=\rm1 km/20 L | |||||||||
| Miles per US gallon → Miles per Imperial gallon: | 1 \rmmpgUS=\rm0.8327 \rmmpgImp | |||||||||
| Miles per Imperial gallon → Miles per US gallon: | 1 \rmmpgImp=1.2001 \rmmpgUS |
While the thermal efficiency (mechanical output to chemical energy in fuel) of petroleum engines has increased since the beginning of the automotive era, this is not the only factor in fuel economy. The design of automobile as a whole and usage pattern affects the fuel economy. Published fuel economy is subject to variation between jurisdiction due to variations in testing protocols.
One of the first studies to determine fuel economy in the United States was the Mobil Economy Run, which was an event that took place every year from 1936 (except during World War II) to 1968. It was designed to provide real, efficient fuel efficiency numbers during a coast-to-coast test on real roads and with regular traffic and weather conditions. The Mobil Oil Corporation sponsored it and the United States Auto Club (USAC) sanctioned and operated the run. In more recent studies, the average fuel economy for new passenger car in the United States improved from 17 mpg (13.8 L/100 km) in 1978 to more than 22 mpg (10.7 L/100 km) in 1982.[6] The average fuel economy for new 2020 model year cars, light trucks and SUVs in the United States was 25.4mpgus.[7] 2019 model year cars (ex. EVs) classified as "midsize" by the US EPA ranged from 12 to 56 mpgUS (20 to 4.2 L/100 km)[8] However, due to environmental concerns caused by CO2 emissions, new EU regulations are being introduced to reduce the average emissions of cars sold beginning in 2012, to 130 g/km of CO2, equivalent to 4.5 L/100 km (52 mpgUS, 63 mpgimp) for a diesel-fueled car, and 5.0 L/100 km (47 mpgUS, 56 mpgimp) for a gasoline (petrol)-fueled car.[9]
The average consumption across the fleet is not immediately affected by the new vehicle fuel economy: for example, Australia's car fleet average in 2004 was 11.5 L/100 km (20.5 mpgUS),[10] compared with the average new car consumption in the same year of 9.3 L/100 km (25.3 mpgUS)
Fuel economy at steady speeds with selected vehicles was studied in 2010. The most recent study[11] indicates greater fuel efficiency at higher speeds than earlier studies; for example, some vehicles achieve better fuel economy at 100km/h rather than at 70km/h,[11] although not their best economy, such as the 1994 Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera with the LN2 2.2L engine, which has its best economy at 90km/h (8.1L/100 km), and gets better economy at 105km/h than at 72km/h (9.4L/100 km vs 22mpgus). The proportion of driving on high speed roadways varies from 4% in Ireland to 41% in the Netherlands.
When the US National Maximum Speed Law's 55mi/h speed limit was mandated from 1974 to 1995, there were complaints that fuel economy could decrease instead of increase. The 1997 Toyota Celica got better fuel-efficiency at 105km/h than it did at 65km/h (5.41L/100 km vs 5.53L/100 km), although even better at 60mi/h than at 65mi/h (48.4mpgus vs 43.5mpgus), and its best economy (52.6mpgus) at only 25mi/h. Other vehicles tested had from 1.4 to 20.2% better fuel-efficiency at 90km/h vs. 105km/h. Their best economy was reached at speeds of 40to (see graph).[11]
Officials hoped that the 55mph limit, combined with a ban on ornamental lighting, no gasoline sales on Sunday, and a 15% cut in gasoline production, would reduce total gasoline consumption by 200,000 barrels a day, representing a 2.2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels.[12] This was partly based on a belief that cars achieve maximum efficiency between 40 and 50 mph (65 and 80 km/h) and that trucks and buses were most efficient at 55mph.[13]
In 1998, the U.S. Transportation Research Board footnoted an estimate that the 1974 National Maximum Speed Limit (NMSL) reduced fuel consumption by 0.2 to 1.0 percent.[14] Rural interstates, the roads most visibly affected by the NMSL, accounted for 9.5% of the U.S' vehicle-miles-traveled in 1973,[15] but such free-flowing roads typically provide more fuel-efficient travel than conventional roads.[16] [17] [18]
A reasonably modern European supermini and many mid-size cars, including station wagons, may manage motorway travel at 5 L/100 km (47 mpg US/56 mpg imp) or 6.5 L/100 km in city traffic (36 mpg US/43 mpg imp), with carbon dioxide emissions of around 140 g/km.
An average North American mid-size car travels 21 mpg (US) (11 L/100 km) city, 27 mpg (US) (9 L/100 km) highway; a full-size SUV usually travels 13 mpg (US) (18 L/100 km) city and 16 mpg (US) (15 L/100 km) highway. Pickup trucks vary considerably; whereas a 4 cylinder-engined light pickup can achieve 28 mpg (8 L/100 km), a V8 full-size pickup with extended cabin only travels 13 mpg (US) (18 L/100 km) city and 15 mpg (US) (15 L/100 km) highway.
The average fuel economy for all vehicles on the road is higher in Europe than the United States because the higher cost of fuel changes consumer behaviour. In the UK, a gallon of gas without tax would cost US$1.97, but with taxes cost US$6.06 in 2005. The average cost in the United States was US$2.61.[19]
European-built cars are generally more fuel-efficient than US vehicles. While Europe has many higher efficiency diesel cars, European gasoline vehicles are on average also more efficient than gasoline-powered vehicles in the USA. Most European vehicles cited in the CSI study run on diesel engines, which tend to achieve greater fuel efficiency than gas engines. Selling those cars in the United States is difficult because of emission standards, notes Walter McManus, a fuel economy expert at the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. "For the most part, European diesels don’t meet U.S. emission standards", McManus said in 2007. Another reason why many European models are not marketed in the United States is that labor unions object to having the big 3 import any new foreign built models regardless of fuel economy while laying off workers at home.[20]
An example of European cars' capabilities of fuel economy is the microcar Smart Fortwo cdi, which can achieve up to 3.4 L/100 km (69.2 mpg US) using a turbocharged three-cylinder 41 bhp (30 kW) Diesel engine. The Fortwo is produced by Daimler AG and is only sold by one company in the United States. Furthermore, the world record in fuel economy of production cars is held by the Volkswagen Group, with special production models (labeled "3L") of the Volkswagen Lupo and the Audi A2, consuming as little as 3L/100 km.[21]
Diesel engines generally achieve greater fuel efficiency than petrol (gasoline) engines. Passenger car diesel engines have energy efficiency of up to 41% but more typically 30%, and petrol engines of up to 37.3%, but more typically 20%. A common margin is 25% more miles per gallon for an efficient turbodiesel.
For example, the current model Skoda Octavia, using Volkswagen engines, has a combined European fuel efficiency of 41.3mpgUS for the 105bhp petrol engine and 52.3mpgUS for the 105bhp — and heavier — diesel engine. The higher compression ratio is helpful in raising the energy efficiency, but diesel fuel also contains approximately 10% more energy per unit volume than gasoline which contributes to the reduced fuel consumption for a given power output.
In 2002, the United States had 85,174,776 trucks, and averaged . Large trucks, over, averaged .[22]
| GVWR lbs | Number | Percentage | Average miles per truck | fuel economy | Percentage of fuel use | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6,000 lbs and less | 51,941,389 | 61.00% | 11,882 | 17.6 | 42.70% | |
| 6,001 – 10,000 lbs | 28,041,234 | 32.90% | 12,684 | 14.3 | 30.50% | |
| Light truck subtotal | 79,982,623 | 93.90% | 12,163 | 16.2 | 73.20% | |
| 10,001 – 14,000 lbs | 691,342 | 0.80% | 14,094 | 10.5 | 1.10% | |
| 14,001 – 16,000 lbs | 290,980 | 0.30% | 15,441 | 8.5 | 0.50% | |
| 16,001 – 19,500 lbs | 166,472 | 0.20% | 11,645 | 7.9 | 0.30% | |
| 19,501 – 26,000 lbs | 1,709,574 | 2.00% | 12,671 | 7 | 3.20% | |
| Medium truck subtotal | 2,858,368 | 3.40% | 13,237 | 8 | 5.20% | |
| 26,001 – 33,000 lbs | 179,790 | 0.20% | 30,708 | 6.4 | 0.90% | |
| 33,001 lbs and up | 2,153,996 | 2.50% | 45,739 | 5.7 | 20.70% | |
| Heavy truck subtotal | 2,333,786 | 2.70% | 44,581 | 5.8 | 21.60% | |
| Total | 85,174,776 | 100.00% | 13,088 | 13.5 | 100.00% |
The average economy of automobiles in the United States in 2002 was . By 2010 this had increased to . Average fuel economy in the United States gradually declined until 1973, when it reached a low of and gradually has increased since, as a result of higher fuel cost.[23] A study indicates that a 10% increase in gas prices will eventually produce a 2.04% increase in fuel economy.[24] One method by car makers to increase fuel efficiency is lightweighting in which lighter-weight materials are substituted in for improved engine performance and handling.[25]
Identical vehicles can have varying fuel consumption figures listed depending upon the testing methods of the jurisdiction.[26]
Lexus IS 250 – petrol 2.5 L 4GR-FSE V6, 204 hp (153 kW), 6 speed automatic, rear wheel drive
Since the total force opposing the vehicle's motion (at constant speed) multiplied by the distance through which the vehicle travels represents the work that the vehicle's engine must perform, the study of fuel economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of distance traveled) requires a detailed analysis of the forces that oppose a vehicle's motion. In terms of physics, Force = rate at which the amount of work generated (energy delivered) varies with the distance traveled, or:
F=
| dW | |
| ds |
\proptoFueleconomy
Note: The amount of work generated by the vehicle's power source (energy delivered by the engine) would be exactly proportional to the amount of fuel energy consumed by the engine if the engine's efficiency is the same regardless of power output, but this is not necessarily the case due to the operating characteristics of the internal combustion engine.
For a vehicle whose source of power is a heat engine (an engine that uses heat to perform useful work), the amount of fuel energy that a vehicle consumes per unit of distance (level road) depends upon:
Ideally, a car traveling at a constant velocity on level ground in a vacuum with frictionless wheels could travel at any speed without consuming any energy beyond what is needed to get the car up to speed. Less ideally, any vehicle must expend energy on overcoming road load forces, which consist of aerodynamic drag, tire rolling resistance, and inertial energy that is lost when the vehicle is decelerated by friction brakes. With ideal regenerative braking, the inertial energy could be completely recovered, but there are few options for reducing aerodynamic drag or rolling resistance other than optimizing the vehicle's shape and the tire design. Road load energy or the energy demanded at the wheels, can be calculated by evaluating the vehicle equation of motion over a specific driving cycle.[29] The vehicle powertrain must then provide this minimum energy to move the vehicle and will lose a large amount of additional energy in the process of converting fuel energy into work and transmitting it to the wheels. Overall, the sources of energy loss in moving a vehicle may be summarized as follows:
Fuel-efficiency decreases from electrical loads are most pronounced at lower speeds because most electrical loads are constant while engine load increases with speed. So at a lower speed, a higher proportion of engine horsepower is used by electrical loads. Hybrid cars see the greatest effect on fuel-efficiency from electrical loads because of this proportional effect.
See main article: Fuel saving devices.
| Type | Technology | Explanation | Inventor | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Engine cycle | Replacing petrol engines with diesel engines | Reduces brake specific fuel consumption at lower RPM | Herbert Akroyd Stuart | ||
| Engine combustion strategies | Electronic control of the cooling system | Optimizes engine running temperature | |||
| Stratified Charge combustion | Injects fuel into cylinder just before ignition, increasing compression ratio | For use in petrol engines | |||
| Lean burn combustion | Increases air/fuel ratio to reduce throttling losses | Chrysler | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KnNX6gtDyhg | ||
| Cooled exhaust gas recirculation (petrol) | Reduces throttling losses, heat rejection, chemical dissociation, and specific heat ratio | ||||
| Cooled exhaust gas recirculation (diesel) | Lowers peak combustion temperatures | ||||
| Atkinson cycle | Lengthens power stroke to achieve greater thermal efficiency | James Atkinson | |||
| Variable valve timing and variable valve lift | Alters valve lift timing and height for precise control over intake and exhaust | William Howe and William Williams (Robert Stephenson and Company) invented the first variable timing valve | |||
| Variable geometry turbocharging | Optimizes airflow with adjustable vanes to regulate turbocharger's air intake and eliminate turbo lag | Garrett (Honeywell) | |||
| Twincharging | Combines a supercharger with a turbocharger to eliminate turbo lag | Lancia | For use in small-displacement engines | ||
| Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines | Allows for stratified fuel charge and ultra-lean burn | Leon Levavasseur | |||
| Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engines | Combines direct injection with a turbocharger | Volkswagen | |||
| Common rail direct injection | Increases injection pressure | Robert Huber | |||
| Piezoelectric diesel injectors | Uses multiple injections per engine cycle for increased precision | ||||
| Cylinder management | Shuts off individual cylinders when their power output is not needed | ||||
| HCCI (Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition) combustion | Allows leaner and higher compression burn | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8CnYljXAS0 | |||
| Scuderi engine | Eliminates recompression losses | Carmelo J. Scuderi | |||
| Compound engines (6-stroke engine or turbo-compound engine) | Recovers exhaust energy | ||||
| Two-stroke diesel engines | Increases power to weight ratio | Charles F. Kettering | |||
| High-efficiency gas turbine engines | Increases power to weight ratio | ||||
| Turbosteamer | Uses heat from the engine to spin a mini turbine to generate power | Raymond Freymann (BMW) | |||
| Stirling hybrid battery vehicle | Increases thermal efficiency | Still largely theoretical, although prototypes have been produced by Dean Kamen | |||
| Time-optimized piston path | Captures energy from gases in the cylinders at their highest temperatures | ||||
| Engine internal losses | Downsized engines with a supercharger or a turbocharger | Reduces engine displacement while maintaining sufficient torque | Saab, starting with the 99 in 1978. | ||
| Lower-friction lubricants (engine oil, transmission fluid, axle fluid) | Reduces energy lost to friction | ||||
| Lower viscosity engine oils | Reduces hydrodynamic friction and energy required to circulate | ||||
| Variable displacement oil pump | Avoids excessive flow rate at high engine speed | ||||
| Electrifying engine accessories (water pump, power steering pump, and air conditioner compressor) | Sends more engine power to the transmission or reduces the fuel required for the same traction power | ||||
| Roller type cam, low friction coating on piston skirt and optimizing load-bearing surface, e.g. camshaft bearing and connective rods. | Reduces engine frictions | ||||
| Engine running conditions | Coolant additives | Increases the thermal efficiency of the cooling system | |||
| Increasing the number of gearbox ratios in manual gearboxes | Lowers the engine rpm at cruise | ||||
| Reducing the volume of water-based cooling systems | Engine reaches its efficient operating temperature more quickly | ||||
| Start-stop system | Automatically shuts off engine when vehicle is stopped, reducing idle time | ||||
| Downsized engines with an electric drive system and battery | Avoids low-efficiency idle and power conditions |
| Type | Technology | Explanation | Inventor | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transmission losses | Continuously variable transmission (CVT) | Enables engine to run at its most efficient RPM | For use in automatic gearboxes | ||
| Locking torque converters in automatic transmissions | Reduces slip and power losses in the converter | ||||
| Rolling resistance | Lighter construction materials (aluminum, fiberglass, plastic, high-strength steel, and carbon fiber) | Reduces vehicle weight | |||
| Increasing tire pressure | Lowers tire deformation underweight | ||||
| Replacing tires with low rolling resistance (LRR) models | Lowers rolling resistance[31] | ||||
| Series parallel hybrid | Using an electric motor for the base power and an IC engine for assists and boosts, when needed | Decreases fuel consumption by running the petrol engine only when needed, in this way also environmentally friendly. | TRW | ||
| Energy saving | Lighter materials for moving parts (pistons, crankshaft, gears, and alloy wheels) | Reduces the energy required to move parts | |||
| Regenerative braking | Captures kinetic energy while braking | Louis Antoine Kriéger | For use in hybrid or electric vehicles | ||
| Recapturing waste heat from the exhaust system | Converts heat energy into electricity using thermoelectric cooling | Jean Charles Athanase Peltier | |||
| Regenerative shock absorbers | Recaptures wasted energy in the vehicle suspension[32] | Levant Power | |||
| Traffic management | Active highway management | Matches speed limits and vehicles allowed to join motorways with traffic density to maintain traffic throughput | |||
| Vehicle electronic control systems that automatically maintain distances between vehicles on motorways | Reduces ripple back braking and consequent re-acceleration |
Technologies that may improve fuel efficiency, but are not yet on the market, include:
Many aftermarket consumer products exist that are purported to increase fuel economy; many of these claims have been discredited. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency maintains a list of devices that have been tested by independent laboratories and makes the test results available to the public.[33]
See main article: Fuel economy-maximizing behaviors. Governments, various environmentalist organizations, and companies like Toyota and Shell Oil Company have historically urged drivers to maintain adequate air pressure in tires and careful acceleration/deceleration habits. Keeping track of fuel efficiency stimulates fuel economy-maximizing behavior.[34]
A five-year partnership between Michelin and Anglian Water shows that 60,000 liters of fuel can be saved on tire pressure. The Anglian Water fleet of 4,000 vans and cars are now lasting their full lifetime. This shows the impact that tire pressures have on the fuel efficiency.[35]
Environmental management systems EMAS, as well as good fleet management, includes record-keeping of the fleet fuel consumption. Quality management uses those figures to steer the measures acting on the fleets. This is a way to check whether procurement, driving, and maintenance in total have contributed to changes in the fleet's overall consumption.
| Country | 2004 average | Requirement | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2004 | 2005 | 2008 | Later | |||
| People's Republic of China[36] | 6.9 L/100 km | 6.9 L/100 km | 6.1 L/100 km | |||
| 24.6 mpg (9.5 L/100 km) (cars and trucks)* | 27 mpg (8.7 L/100 km) (cars only)* | 35 mpg (6.7 L/100 km) (Model Year 2020, cars & light trucks) | ||||
| 4.1 L/100 km (2020, NEDC) | ||||||
| Japan[37] | 6.7 L/100 km CAFE eq (2010) | |||||
| 8.08 L/100 km CAFE eq (2002) | none | none (as of March 2019)[38] | ||||
From October 2008, all new cars had to be sold with a sticker on the windscreen showing the fuel consumption and the CO2 emissions.[39] Fuel consumption figures are expressed as urban, extra urban and combined, measured according to ECE Regulations 83 and 101 – which are the based on the European driving cycle; previously, only the combined number was given.
Australia also uses a star rating system, from one to five stars, that combines greenhouse gases with pollution, rating each from 0 to 10 with ten being best. To get 5 stars a combined score of 16 or better is needed, so a car with a 10 for economy (greenhouse) and a 6 for emission or 6 for economy and 10 for emission, or anything in between would get the highest 5 star rating.[40] The lowest rated car is the Ssangyong Korrando with automatic transmission, with one star, while the highest rated was the Toyota Prius hybrid. The Fiat 500, Fiat Punto and Fiat Ritmo as well as the Citroen C3 also received 5 stars.[41] The greenhouse rating depends on the fuel economy and the type of fuel used. A greenhouse rating of 10 requires 60 or less grams of CO2 per km, while a rating of zero is more than 440 g/km CO2. The highest greenhouse rating of any 2009 car listed is the Toyota Prius, with 106 g/km CO2 and 4.4L/100 km. Several other cars also received the same rating of 8.5 for greenhouse. The lowest rated was the Ferrari 575 at 499 g/km CO2 and 21.8L/100 km. The Bentley also received a zero rating, at 465 g/km CO2. The best fuel economy of any year is the 2004–2005 Honda Insight, at 3.4L/100 km.
Vehicle manufacturers follow a controlled laboratory testing procedure to generate the fuel consumption data that they submit to the Government of Canada. This controlled method of fuel consumption testing, including the use of standardized fuels, test cycles and calculations, is used instead of on-road driving to ensure that all vehicles are tested under identical conditions and that the results are consistent and repeatable.
Selected test vehicles are "run in" for about 6,000 km before testing. The vehicle is then mounted on a chassis dynamometer programmed to take into account the aerodynamic efficiency, weight and rolling resistance of the vehicle. A trained driver runs the vehicle through standardized driving cycles that simulate trips in the city and on the highway. Fuel consumption ratings are derived from the emissions generated during the driving cycles.[42]
THE 5 CYCLE TEST:
Tests 1, 3, 4, and 5 are averaged to create the city driving fuel consumption rate.
Tests 2, 4, and 5 are averaged to create the highway driving fuel consumption rate.[42]
See main article: New European Driving Cycle.
In the European Union, passenger vehicles are commonly tested using two drive cycles, and corresponding fuel economies are reported as "urban" and "extra-urban", in liters per 100 km and (in the UK) in miles per imperial gallon.
The urban economy is measured using the test cycle known as ECE-15, first introduced in 1970 by EC Directive 70/220/EWG and finalized by EEC Directive 90/C81/01 in 1999. It simulates a 4,052 m (2.518 mile) urban trip at an average speed of 18.7 km/h (11.6 mph) and at a maximum speed of 50 km/h (31 mph).
The extra-urban driving cycle or EUDC lasts 400 seconds (6 minutes 40 seconds) at an average speed 62.6 km/h (39 mph) and a top speed of 120 km/h (74.6 mph).[43]
EU fuel consumption numbers are often considerably lower than corresponding US EPA test results for the same vehicle. For example, the 2011 Honda CR-Z with a six-speed manual transmission is rated 6.1/4.4 L/100 km in Europe[44] and 7.6/6.4 L/100 km (31/37 mpg) in the United States.[45]
In the European Union advertising has to show carbon dioxide (CO2)-emission and fuel consumption data in a clear way as described in the UK Statutory Instrument 2004 No 1661.[46] Since September 2005 a color-coded "Green Rating" sticker has been available in the UK, which rates fuel economy by CO2 emissions: A: <= 100 g/km, B: 100–120, C: 121–150, D: 151–165, E: 166–185, F: 186–225, and G: 226+. Depending on the type of fuel used, for gasoline A corresponds to about 4.1L/100 km and G about 9.5L/100 km.[47] Ireland has a very similar label, but the ranges are slightly different, with A: <= 120 g/km, B: 121–140, C: 141–155, D: 156–170, E: 171–190, F: 191–225, and G: 226+.[48] From 2020, EU requires manufacturers to average 95 g/km emission or less, or pay an excess emissions premium.[49]
In the UK the ASA (Advertising standards agency) have claimed that fuel consumption figures are misleading. Often the case with European vehicles as the MPG (miles per gallon) figures that can be advertised are often not the same as "real world" driving.
The ASA have said that car manufacturers can use "cheats" to prepare their vehicles for their compulsory fuel efficiency and emissions tests in a way set out to make themselves look as "clean" as possible. This practice is common in gasoline and diesel vehicle tests, but hybrid and electric vehicles are not immune as manufacturers apply these techniques to fuel efficiency.
Car experts also assert that the official MPG figures given by manufacturers do not represent the true MPG values from real-world driving.[50] Websites have been set up to show the real-world MPG figures, based on crowd-sourced data from real users, vs the official MPG figures.[51]
The major loopholes in the current EU tests allow car manufacturers a number of "cheats" to improve results. Car manufacturers can:
According to the results of a 2014 study by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), the gap between official and real-world fuel-economy figures in Europe has risen to about 38% in 2013 from 10% in 2001. The analysis found that for private cars, the difference between on-road and official values rose from around 8% in 2001 to 31% in 2013, and 45% for company cars in 2013. The report is based on data from more than half a million private and company vehicles across Europe. The analysis was prepared by the ICCT together with the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), and the German Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg (IFEU).[53]
In 2018 update of the ICCT data the difference between the official and real figures was again 38%.[54]
The evaluation criteria used in Japan reflects driving conditions commonly found, as the typical Japanese driver does not drive as fast as other regions internationally (Speed limits in Japan).
The 10–15 mode driving cycle test is the official fuel economy and emission certification test for new light duty vehicles in Japan. Fuel economy is expressed in km/L (kilometers per liter) and emissions are expressed in g/km. The test is carried out on a dynamometer and consist of 25 tests which cover idling, acceleration, steady running and deceleration, and simulate typical Japanese urban and/or expressway driving conditions. The running pattern begins with a warm start, lasts for 660 seconds (11 minutes) and runs at speeds up to 701NaN1.[55] [56] The distance of the cycle is 6.341NaN1, average speed of 25.61NaN1, and duration 892 seconds (14.9 minutes), including the initial 15 mode segment.[56]
A new more demanding test, called the JC08, was established in December 2006 for Japan's new standard that goes into effect in 2015, but it is already being used by several car manufacturers for new cars. The JC08 test is significantly longer and more rigorous than the 10–15 mode test. The running pattern with JC08 stretches out to 1200 seconds (20 minutes), and there are both cold and warm start measurements and top speed is 821NaN1. The economy ratings of the JC08 are lower than the 10–15 mode cycle, but they are expected to be more real world.[55] The Toyota Prius became the first car to meet Japan's new 2015 Fuel Economy Standards measured under the JC08 test.[57]
Starting on 7 April 2008 all cars of up to 3.5 tonnes GVW sold other than private sale need to have a fuel economy sticker applied (if available) that shows the rating from one half star to six stars with the most economic cars having the most stars and the more fuel hungry cars the least, along with the fuel economy in L/100 km and the estimated annual fuel cost for driving 14,000 km (at present fuel prices). The stickers must also appear on vehicles to be leased for more than 4 months. All new cars currently rated range from 6.9L/100 km to 3.8L/100 km and received respectively from 4.5 to 5.5 stars.[58]
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia announced new light-duty vehicle fuel economy standards in November 2014 which became effective 1 January 2016 and will be fully phased in by 1 January 2018 (Saudi Standards regulation SASO-2864). A review of the targets will be carried by December 2018, at which time targets for 2021–2025 will be set.
See main article: Energy Tax Act. The Energy Tax Act of 1978[59] in the US established a gas guzzler tax on the sale of new model year vehicles whose fuel economy fails to meet certain statutory levels. The tax applies only to cars (not trucks) and is collected by the IRS. Its purpose is to discourage the production and purchase of fuel-inefficient vehicles. The tax was phased in over ten years with rates increasing over time. It applies only to manufacturers and importers of vehicles, although presumably some or all of the tax is passed along to automobile consumers in the form of higher prices. Only new vehicles are subject to the tax, so no tax is imposed on used car sales. The tax is graduated to apply a higher tax rate for less-fuel-efficient vehicles. To determine the tax rate, manufacturers test all the vehicles at their laboratories for fuel economy. The US Environmental Protection Agency confirms a portion of those tests at an EPA lab.
In some cases, this tax may apply only to certain variants of a given model; for example, the 2004–2006 Pontiac GTO (captive import version of the Holden Monaro) did incur the tax when ordered with the four-speed automatic transmission, but did not incur the tax when ordered with the six-speed manual transmission.[60]
Two separate fuel economy tests simulate city driving and highway driving: the "city" driving program or Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule or (UDDS) or FTP-72 is defined in and consists of starting with a cold engine and making 23 stops over a period of 31 minutes for an average speed of 20 mph (32 km/h) and with a top speed of 56 mph (90 km/h).
The "highway" program or Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule (HWFET) is defined in and uses a warmed-up engine and makes no stops, averaging 48 mph (77 km/h) with a top speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) over a 10miles distance. A weighted average of city (55%) and highway (45%) fuel economies is used to determine the combined rating and guzzler tax.[61] [62] [63] This rating is what is also used for light-duty vehicle corporate average fuel economy regulations.
The procedure has been updated to FTP-75, adding a "hot start" cycle which repeats the "cold start" cycle after a 10-minute pause.
Because EPA figures had almost always indicated better efficiency than real-world fuel-efficiency, the EPA has modified the method starting with 2008. Updated estimates are available for vehicles back to the 1985 model year.[61] [64]
US EPA altered the testing procedure effective MY2008 which adds three new Supplemental Federal Test Procedure (SFTP) tests to include the influence of higher driving speed, harder acceleration, colder temperature and air conditioning use.[65]
SFTP US06 is a high speed/quick acceleration loop that lasts 10 minutes, covers 8miles, averages 48mi/h and reaches a top speed of 80mi/h. Four stops are included, and brisk acceleration maximizes at a rate of 8.46mi/h per second. The engine begins warm and air conditioning is not used. Ambient temperature varies between 68°F to 86°F.
SFTO SC03 is the air conditioning test, which raises ambient temperatures to 95°F, and puts the vehicle's climate control system to use. Lasting 9.9 minutes, the 3.6miles loop averages 22mi/h and maximizes at a rate of 54.8mi/h. Five stops are included, idling occurs 19 percent of the time and acceleration of 5.1 mph per second is achieved. Engine temperatures begin warm.
Lastly, a cold temperature cycle uses the same parameters as the current city loop, except that ambient temperature is set to 20°F.
EPA tests for fuel economy do not include electrical load tests beyond climate control, which may account for some of the discrepancy between EPA and real world fuel-efficiency. A 200 W electrical load can produce a 0.4 km/L (0.94 mpg) reduction in efficiency on the FTP 75 cycle test.[66]
Beginning with model year 2017 the calculation method changed to improve the accuracy of the estimated 5-cycle city and highway fuel economy values derived from just the FTP and HFET tests, with lower uncertainty for fuel efficient vehicles.[67]
Following the efficiency claims made for vehicles such as Chevrolet Volt and Nissan Leaf, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory recommended to use EPA's new vehicle fuel efficiency formula that gives different values depending on fuel used.[68] In November 2010 the EPA introduced the first fuel economy ratings in the Monroney stickers for plug-in electric vehicles.
For the fuel economy label of the Chevy Volt plug-in hybrid EPA rated the car separately for all-electric mode expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) and for gasoline-only mode expressed in conventional miles per gallon. EPA also estimated an overall combined city/highway gas-electricity fuel economy rating expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e). The label also includes a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30miles, 45miles, 60miles and 75miles driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario. This information was included to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges. Also the fuel economy for a gasoline-only scenario (never charge) was included. For electric-only mode the energy consumption estimated in kWh per 100miles is also shown.[69] [70]
For the fuel economy label of the Nissan Leaf electric car EPA rated the combined fuel economy in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent, with a separate rating for city and highway driving. This fuel economy equivalence is based on the energy consumption estimated in kWh per 100 miles, and also shown in the Monroney label.[71]
In May 2011, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and EPA issued a joint final rule establishing new requirements for a fuel economy and environment label that is mandatory for all new passenger cars and trucks starting with model year 2013, and voluntary for 2012 models. The ruling includes new labels for alternative fuel and alternative propulsion vehicles available in the US market, such as plug-in hybrids, electric vehicles, flexible-fuel vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, and natural gas vehicles.[72] [73] The common fuel economy metric adopted to allow the comparison of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles is miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe). A gallon of gasoline equivalent means the number of kilowatt-hours of electricity, cubic feet of compressed natural gas (CNG), or kilograms of hydrogen that is equal to the energy in a gallon of gasoline.[72]
The new labels also include for the first time an estimate of how much fuel or electricity it takes to drive, providing US consumers with fuel consumption per distance traveled, the metric commonly used in many other countries. EPA explained that the objective is to avoid the traditional miles per gallon metric that can be potentially misleading when consumers compare fuel economy improvements, and known as the "MPG illusion"[74] – this illusion arises because the reciprocal (i.e. non-linear) relationship between cost (equivalently, volume of fuel consumed) per unit distance driven and MPG value means that differences in MPG values are not directly meaningful – only ratios are (in mathematical terms, the reciprocal function does not commute with addition and subtraction; in general, a difference in reciprocal values is not equal to the reciprocal of their difference). It has been claimed that many consumers are unaware of this, and therefore compare MPG values by subtracting them, which can give a misleading picture of relative differences in fuel economy between different pairs of vehicles – for instance, an increase from 10 to 20 MPG corresponds to a 100% improvement in fuel economy, whereas an increase from 50 to 60 MPG is only a 20% improvement, although in both cases the difference is 10 MPG.[75] The EPA explained that the new gallons-per-100-miles metric provides a more accurate measure of fuel efficiency[72] [76] – notably, it is equivalent to the normal metric measurement of fuel economy, liters per 100 kilometers (L/100 km).
See main article: Corporate Average Fuel Economy. The Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations in the United States, first enacted by Congress in 1975,[77] are federal regulations intended to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles) sold in the US in the wake of the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo. Historically, it is the sales-weighted average fuel economy of a manufacturer's fleet of current model year passenger cars or light trucks, manufactured for sale in the United States. Under Truck CAFE standards 2008–2011 this changes to a "footprint" model where larger trucks are allowed to consume more fuel. The standards were limited to vehicles under a certain weight, but those weight classes were expanded in 2011.
The Clean Air Act of 1970 prohibited states from establishing their own air pollution standards. However, the legislation authorized the EPA to grant a waiver to California, allowing the state to set higher standards.[78] The law provides a “piggybacking” provision that allows other states to adopt vehicle emission limits that are the same as California's.[79] California's waivers were routinely granted until 2007, when the George W. Bush administration rejected the state's bid to adopt global warming pollution limits for cars and light trucks.[80] California and 15 other states that were trying to put in place the same emissions standards sued in response.[81] The case was tied up in court until the Obama administration reversed the policy in 2009 by granting the waiver.[82]
In August 2012, President Obama announced new standards for American-made automobiles of an average of 54.5 miles per gallon by the year 2025.[83] [84] In April 2018, EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt announced that the Trump administration planned to roll back the 2012 federal standards and would also seek to curb California's authority to set its own standards. Although the Trump administration was reportedly considering a compromise to allow state and national standards to stay in place,[85] on 21 February 2019 the White House declared that it had abandoned these negotiations.[86] A government report subsequently found that, in 2019, new light-duty vehicle fuel economy fell 0.2 miles per gallon (to 24.9 miles per gallon) and pollution increased 3 grams per mile traveled (to 356 grams per mile). A decrease in fuel economy and an increase in pollution had not occurred for the previous five years.[87] The Obama-era rule was officially rolled back on 31 March 2020 during the Trump administration,[88] but the rollback was reversed on 20 December 2021 during the Biden administration.[89]
Trucks are usually bought as an investment good. They are meant to earn money. As the Diesel fuel burnt in heavy trucks accounts for around 30%[90] of the total costs for a freight forwarding company there is always a lot of interest in both the haulage industry and the truck builder industry to strive for best fuel economy. For truck buyers the fuel economy measured by standard procedures is only a first guideline. Professional trucking companies measure the fuel economy of their trucks and truck fleets in real usage. Fuel economy of trucks in real usage is determined by four important factors: The truck technology that is constantly improved by the various OEMs. The driver's driving style contributes a lot to the real fuel economy (different from the test cycles where a standard driving style is used). The maintenance condition of the vehicle influences the fuel efficiency – again different from standardized procedures where the trucks are always presented in flawless condition. Last but not least the usage of the vehicle influences the fuel consumption: Hilly roads and heavy loads will increase the fuel consumption of a vehicle.
Fuel efficiency directly affects emissions causing pollution by affecting the amount of fuel used. However, it also depends on the fuel source used to drive the vehicle concerned. Cars for example, can run on a number of fuel types other than gasoline, such as natural gas, LPG or biofuel or electricity which creates various quantities of atmospheric pollution.
A kilogram of carbon, whether contained in petrol, diesel, kerosene, or any other hydrocarbon fuel in a vehicle, leads to approximately 3.6 kg of CO2 emissions.[91] Due to the carbon content of gasoline, its combustion emits 2.3 kg/L (19.4 lb/US gal) of CO2; since diesel fuel is more energy dense per unit volume, diesel emits 2.6 kg/L (22.2 lb/US gal). This figure is only the CO2 emissions of the final fuel product and does not include additional CO2 emissions created during the drilling, pumping, transportation and refining steps required to produce the fuel. Additional measures to reduce overall emission includes improvements to the efficiency of air conditioners, lights and tires.
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