Peppermint Explained

Peppermint (Mentha × piperita) is a hybrid species of mint, a cross between watermint and spearmint.[1] Indigenous to Europe and the Middle East,[2] the plant is now widely spread and cultivated in many regions of the world.[3] It is occasionally found in the wild with its parent species.[3] [4]

Although the genus Mentha comprises more than 25 species, the one in most common use is peppermint.[5] While Western peppermint is derived from Mentha × piperita, Chinese peppermint, or bohe, is derived from the fresh leaves of M. haplocalyx.[6] [7] M. × piperita and M. haplocalyx are both recognized as plant sources of menthol and menthone, and are among the oldest herbs used for both culinary and medicinal products.[5] [8]

Botany

Peppermint was first identified in Hertfordshire, England, by a Dr. Eales, a discovery which John Ray published 1696 in the second edition of his book Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum. He initially gave it the name Mentha spicis brevioribus et habitioribus, foliis Mentha fusca, sapore fervido piperis and later in his 1704 volume Historia Plantarum he called it Mentha palustris or Peper–Mint. The plant was then added to the London Pharmacopoeia under the name Mentha piperitis sapore in 1721.[9] [10] [11] [12] It was given the name Mentha piperita in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum Volume 2.[13] Linnaeus treated Peppermint as a species, but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid between Mentha viridis and Mentha aquatica with Mentha viridis itself also being a hybrid between Mentha sylvestris and Mentha rotundifolis.[14] [15] It is an herbaceous, rhizomatous, perennial plant that grows to be 30- tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading and fleshy, and bear fibrous roots. The leaves can be 4- long and 1.5- broad. They are dark green with reddish veins, with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly fuzzy. The flowers are purple, 6- long, with a four-lobed corolla about 5frac=16NaNfrac=16 diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. Flowering season lasts from mid- to late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded.[16] [17] [18] Peppermint is a fast-growing plant; once it sprouts, it spreads very quickly.

Ecology

Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its runners.[4] [18]

Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand,[19] and the United States in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843.[20]

Cultivation

Peppermint generally grows best in moist, shaded locations, and expands by underground rhizomes. Young shoots are taken from old stocks and dibbled into the ground about 0.5 m (1.5 ft) apart. They grow quickly and cover the ground with runners if it is permanently moist. For the home gardener, it is often grown in containers to restrict rapid spreading. It grows best with a good supply of water, without being water-logged, and planted in areas with partial sun to shade.

The leaves and flowering tops are used; they are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and can be dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. They may be allowed to lie and wilt a little before distillation, or they may be taken directly to the still.

Cultivars

Several cultivars have been selected for garden use:

Commercial cultivars may include:

Diseases

Verticillium wilt is a major constraint in peppermint cultivation. 'Todd's Mitcham', 'Refined Murray', 'Roberts Mitcham' (see above), and a few other cultivars have some degree of resistance.

Production

Country! scope="col"
Production
(tonnes)
40,403
6,991
1,010
World 48,437
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[35]
In 2020, world production of peppermint was 48,437 tonnes, led by Morocco with 83% of the world total and Argentina with 14% (table).

In the United States, Oregon and Washington produce most of the country's peppermint,[36] the leaves of which are processed for the essential oil to produce flavorings mainly for chewing gum and toothpaste.[37]

Chemical constituents

Peppermint has a high menthol content. The essential oil also contains menthone and carboxyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate.[38] Dried peppermint typically has 0.3–0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (7–48%), menthone (20–46%), menthyl acetate (3–10%), menthofuran (1–17%), and 1,8-cineol (3–6%). Peppermint oil also contains small amounts of many additional compounds, including limonene, pulegone, caryophyllene, and pinene.[39]

Peppermint contains terpenoids and flavonoids such as eriocitrin, hesperidin, and kaempferol 7-O-rutinoside.[40]

Oil

Peppermint oil has a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly pulegone (found mainly in M. arvensis var. piperascens (cornmint, field mint, or Japanese mint),[41] and to a lesser extent (6,530 ppm) in Mentha × piperita subsp. notho[42]) and menthone.[43] It is known to repel some pest insects, including mosquitos, and has uses in organic gardening. It is also widely used to repel rodents.[44] [45] [46] [47]

The chemical composition of the essential oil from peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.) was analyzed by GC/FID and GC-MS. The main constituents were menthol (40.7%) and menthone (23.4%). Further components were (±)-menthyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, limonene, beta-pinene, and beta-caryophyllene.[48]

Research and health effects

Peppermint oil is under preliminary research for its potential as a short-term treatment for irritable bowel syndrome,[49] [50] and has supposed uses in traditional medicine for minor ailments.[51] Peppermint oil and leaves have a cooling effect when used topically for muscle pain, nerve pain, relief from itching, or as a fragrance.[51] [52] High oral doses of peppermint oil (500 mg) can cause mucosal irritation and mimic heartburn.[51] [52]

Peppermint roots bioaccumulate radium, so the plant may be effective for phytoremediation of radioactively contaminated soil.[53]

Culinary and other uses

Fresh or dried peppermint leaves are often used alone in peppermint tea or with other herbs in herbal teas (tisanes, infusions). Peppermint is used for flavouring ice cream, candy, fruit preserves, alcoholic beverages, chewing gum, toothpaste, and some shampoos, soaps, and skin care products.[36] [37]

Menthol activates cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin and mucosal tissues, and is the primary source of the cooling sensation that follows the topical application of peppermint oil.[54]

Peppermint oil is also used in construction and plumbing to test for the tightness of pipes and disclose leaks by its odor.[55]

Safety

Medicinal uses of peppermint have not been approved as effective or safe by the US Food and Drug Administration.[56] With caution that the concentration of the peppermint constituent pulegone should not exceed 1% (140 mg), peppermint preparations are considered safe by the European Medicines Agency when used in topical formulations for adult subjects.[57] [58] Diluted peppermint essential oil is safe for oral intake when only a few drops are used.[51] [57]

Although peppermint is commonly available as a herbal supplement, no established, consistent manufacturing standards exist for it, and some peppermint products may be contaminated with toxic metals or other substituted compounds.[56] Skin rashes, irritation, or allergic reactions may result from applying peppermint oil to the skin,[56] and its use on the face or chest of young children may cause side effects if the oil menthol is inhaled.[51] [57] A common side effect from oral intake of peppermint oil or capsules is heartburn.[56] Oral use of peppermint products may have adverse effects when used with iron supplements, cyclosporine, medicines for heart conditions or high blood pressure, or medicines to decrease stomach acid.[56]

Standardization

See also

Notes and References

  1. Book: Frampton, Alex. The Complete Illustrated Book of Herbs. The Reader's Digest Association. 2011. 748502326. Archived on 6 April 2017.
  2. Web site: Peppermint . Botanical Online . 19 March 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180319213600/https://www.botanical-online.com/english . 19 March 2018 . dead .
  3. Euro+Med Plantbase Project: Mentha × piperita
  4. Flora of NW Europe: Mentha × piperita
  5. Mimica-Dukic. N. . Bozin. B.. 2008. Mentha L. species (Lamiaceae) as promising sources of bioactive secondary metabolites . Current Pharmaceutical Design. 14. 29. 3141–50. 1873-4286. 19075696. 10.2174/138161208786404245.
  6. Dong. Wenjiang. Ni . Yongnian. Kokot. Serge . February 2015. Differentiation of mint (Mentha haplocalyx Briq.) from different regions in China using gas and liquid chromatography. Journal of Separation Science. 38. 3. 402–9. 10.1002/jssc.201401130. 1615-9314. 25431171.
  7. Web site: Mentha and Schizonepeta . ITM online . 2019-01-06 . 2018-12-26 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181226025305/https://www.itmonline.org/arts/mentha.htm . live .
  8. Book: Principles and practice of phytotherapy : modern herbal medicine. Kerry. Bone . 2013 . Churchill Livingstone. Mills . Simon Y. . 978-0-44306992-5. 2nd. Edinburgh. 830314789.
  9. Book: Ray, John . Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum . 1696 . 234.
  10. Book: Flückiger, Friedrich August . Pharmacographia: A History of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable Origin, met with in Great Britain and British India . Macmillan . 1874 . 481–2.
  11. Bacon . F. J. . 1928 . The Botanical Origin of American Peppermint—Mentha Piperita L* . The Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1912) . en . 17 . 11 . 1094–1096 . 10.1002/jps.3080171108 . 0898-140X.
  12. Porter . C. L. . 1951 . The History of Mentha piperita and Its Economic Importance in Indiana . Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science . 61 . 364–268.
  13. Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species Plantarum 2: 576–577.
  14. Harley, R. M. (1975). Mentha L. In: Stace, C. A., ed. Hybridization and the flora of the British Isles page 387.
  15. Book: Wong, Warren . The Changes that Occur in Peppermint Oil During Aging, Including the Relationship Between Changes in Chemical Composition and Flavor Characteristics . Ph.D. dissertation. Rutgers . 1972 . 10.
  16. Web site: Mentha x piperita - Peppermint - Flora of Northwest Europe. 2014. 29 December 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141229212600/https://oilsesense.com/pages/mentha-x-piperita-peppermint-flora-of-northwest-europe. 29 December 2014. dead.
  17. Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan. .
  18. Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe.
  19. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk: Mentha x piperita
  20. Web site: List of invasive species in the Great Lakes Great Lakes United / Union Saint-Laurent Grands Lacs . 2009-02-07 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090429205753/https://www.glu.org/en/node/199 . 2009-04-29 .
  21. Book: The Herbarist. 24 July 2013. 1997. Herb Society of America.. 39. 10 June 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160610185648/https://books.google.com/books?id=4cZJAAAAYAAJ. live.
  22. Web site: Mentha piperita cv. Chocolate Mint . Mountainvalleygrowers.com . 2013-07-24 . 2013-04-02 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130402163951/https://www.mountainvalleygrowers.com/menpiperitachocolate.htm . live .
  23. Book: Dolf De Rovira. Dictionary of Flavors. 24 July 2013. 28 February 2008. John Wiley & Sons. 978-0-470-38484-8. 420–. 27 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160427011425/https://books.google.com/books?id=avYMy82EBuAC&pg=PA420. live.
  24. Web site: Mentha x piperita 'Chocolate Mint' : peppermint . Hortiplex.gardenweb.com . 2007-09-12 . 2013-07-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175843/https://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw1091144.html . 2014-10-06 .
  25. Web site: Mentha x piperita 'Citrata' : eau de cologne mint . Hortiplex.gardenweb.com . 2007-09-12 . 2013-07-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006174814/https://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw1025619.html . 2014-10-06 .
  26. Web site: Mentha x piperita var. citrata : lemon mint . Hortiplex.gardenweb.com . 2007-09-12 . 2013-07-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140728095336/https://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw1025621.html . 2014-07-28 .
  27. Web site: Mentha x piperita 'Crispa' : eau de cologne mint . Hortiplex.gardenweb.com . 2007-09-12 . 2013-07-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006174224/https://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw1091140.html . 2014-10-06 .
  28. Web site: HortiPlex Plant Database: Info, Images and Links on Thousands of Plants . Hortiplex.gardenweb.com . 2013-07-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006174816/https://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw1091143.htmlburl . 2014-10-06 .
  29. Book: Harrowsmith Country Life. 24 July 2013. 1990. Camden House Pub.. 48. 5 May 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160505071333/https://books.google.com/books?id=255LAAAAYAAJ. live.
  30. Web site: Mentha x piperita 'Lime Mint' : eau de cologne mint . Hortiplex.gardenweb.com . 2007-09-12 . 2013-07-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006180117/https://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw1091141.html . 2014-10-06 .
  31. Web site: Mentha x piperita 'Variegata' : variegated mint . Hortiplex.gardenweb.com . 2007-09-12 . 2013-07-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006180119/https://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw1091142.html . 2014-10-06 .
  32. Web site: Stanev . S. . V. D. Zheljazkov . Study on essential oil and free menthol accumulation in 19 cultivars, populations, and clones of peppermint (Mentha × piperita) . 6 June 2009 . 26 August 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090826214751/https://www.actahort.org/books/629/629_21.htm . live .
  33. An optimising protocol for protoplast regeneration of three peppermint cultivars (Mentha x piperita) . Jullien . Frédéric . Diemer . Florence . Colson . Monique . Faure . Olivier . Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture . 54 . 153–9 . 1998 . 10.1023/A:1006185103897 . 3. 26626639 .
  34. Craker . Lyle E. . Gardner . Zoë . Etter . Selma C. . Herbs in American Fields: A Horticultural Perspective of Herb and Medicinal Plant Production in the United States, 1903 to 2003 . . . 38 . 5 . 2003 . 0018-5345 . 10.21273/hortsci.38.5.977 . 977–983 . 54203253. free .
  35. Web site: Peppermint production in 2020; Production/Crops/Production Quantity from Elements. UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT) . 2020 . 10 September 2022 .
  36. Web site: Peppermint. Oregon State University, Corvallis; Extension Service. 6 July 2020. 2020. 5 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200705232053/https://agsci.oregonstate.edu/coarec/peppermint-0. live.
  37. News: Pihl. Kristi. Washington is No. 1 mint oil producer in U.S.. Tri-City Herald. 26 September 2017. 24 September 2012. 26 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170926235913/https://www.tri-cityherald.com/news/local/article32084385.html. live.
  38. Book: PDR for Herbal Medicines . 4th . Thomson Healthcare . 640 . 2007 . Thomson . 978-1-56363-678-3.
  39. Book: Leung, A. Y. . Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients used in food, drugs and cosmetics . registration . John Wiley & Sons . New York . 1980 . 231 . 9780471049548 .
  40. Dolzhenko . Yuliya . Bertea . Cinzia M. . Occhipinti . Andrea . Bossi . Simone . Maffei . Massimo E. . 2010 . UV-B modulates the interplay between terpenoids and flavonoids in peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.) . Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology . 100 . 2. 67–75 . 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2010.05.003 . 20627615 . 2318/77560 . free .
  41. Web site: Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases at NAL . Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases at NAL . 2021-12-13 . 2021-12-13 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211213171116/https://phytochem.nal.usda.gov/phytochem/plants/show/1286 . live .
  42. Web site: Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases at NAL . Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases at NAL . 2021-12-13 . 2021-12-13 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211213171115/https://phytochem.nal.usda.gov/phytochem/plants/show/1292 . live .
  43. Book: Robert Irving Krieger. Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology: Principles. 11 October 2010. 2001. Academic Press. 978-0-12-426260-7. 823. 9 October 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131009030221/https://books.google.com/books?id=ib8Qhju9EQEC&pg=PA823. live.
  44. Web site: Peppermint Oil = rat repelent. 21 May 2018. 1 June 2020. 28 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044220/https://www.pests.org/how-to-get-rid-of-rats-naturally-peppermint-oil-black-pepper/. live.
  45. Bioefficacy of Mentha piperita essential oil against dengue fever mosquito Aedes aegypti L . Kumar, Sarita . Wahab, Naim . Warikoo, Radhika . April 2011 . Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine . 10.1016/S2221-1691(11)60001-4 . 3609176 . 23569733 . 1 . 2 . 85–8.
  46. Book: Dear Dirt Doctor: Questions Answered the Natural Way . Garrett, Howard . 2003 . University of Texas Press . 54. 9781477304143 .
  47. Book: Industrial Crops and Uses . Singh, Bharat P. . 2010 . Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International . 144. 9781845936167 .
  48. Schmidt . E. . Bail . S. . Buchbauer . G. . Stoilova . I. . Atanasova . T. . Stoyanova . A. . Krastanov . A. . Jirovetz . L. . 2009 . Chemical composition, olfactory evaluation and antioxidant effects of essential oil from Mentha x piperita . Natural Product Communications . 4 . 8. 1107–1112 . 10.1177/1934578X0900400819 . 19768994 . 22823187 . free .
  49. Khanna R, MacDonald JK, Levesque BG . Peppermint oil for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 48. 6. 505–12. July 2014. 24100754. 10.1097/MCG.0b013e3182a88357. 22520810.
  50. Ruepert L, Quartero AO, de Wit NJ, van der Heijden GJ, Rubin G, Muris JW . Bulking agents, antispasmodics and antidepressants for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 8. 8. CD003460. August 2011. 21833945. 10.1002/14651858.CD003460.pub3. 8745618.
  51. Web site: Peppermint oil. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. 2016. 13 July 2015. 5 July 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150705015143/https://nccih.nih.gov/health/peppermintoil. live.
  52. Keifer . D. . Ulbricht . C. . Abrams . T. . Basch . E. . Giese . N. . Giles . M. . DeFranco Kirkwood . C. . Miranda . M. . Woods . J. . 2007 . Peppermint (Mentha xpiperita): An evidence-based systematic review by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration . Journal of Herbal Pharmacotherapy . 7 . 2 . 91–143 . 10.1080/j157v07n02_07 . 18285310 . 72889915 . 2019-02-19 . 2020-07-28 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044214/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5567494_Peppermint_Mentha_piperita_An_evidence-based_systematic_review_by_the_Natural_Standard_Research_Collaboration . live .
  53. Popa . K. . Tykva . R. . Podracká . E. . Humelnicu . D. . 226Ra translocation from soil to selected vegetation in the Crucea (Romania) uranium mining area . Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry . 3 June 2008 . 278 . 1 . 211 . 10.1007/s10967-007-7171-6. 95563388 .
  54. R. Eccles . Menthol and Related Cooling Compounds . . 1994 . 46 . 618–630 . 7529306 . 8 . 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1994.tb03871.x. 20568911 .
  55. Book: Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses. 1912. Orange Judd Company. https://web.archive.org/web/20180408200922/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/21414/21414-h/21414-h.htm#Page_120. M. G. Kains. American Agriculturist. April 8, 2018. dead. English.
  56. Web site: Peppermint. Drugs.com. 11 November 2017. 2017. 12 November 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171112021213/https://www.drugs.com/mtm/peppermint.html. live.
  57. Web site: Community Herbal Monograph on Mentha x piperita L., aetheroleum. Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products, European Medicines Agency. 11 November 2017. 31 October 2007. 18 December 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171218133441/https://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Herbal_-_Community_herbal_monograph/2010/01/WC500059313.pdf. live.
  58. 11766133. 2001. Nair. B. Final report on the safety assessment of Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Oil, Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Leaf Extract, Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Leaf, and Mentha piperita (Peppermint) Leaf Water. International Journal of Toxicology. 20 Suppl 3. 4. 61–73. 10.1080/10915810152630747.
  59. Web site: International Organization for Standardization . International Organization for Standardization . ISO 676:1995 Spices and condiments -- Botanical nomenclature . 8 June 2009 . 6 June 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110606175926/https://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=4844 . live .
  60. Web site: International Organization for Standardization . International Organization for Standardization . ISO 5563:1984 Dried peppermint (Mentha piperita Linnaeus)—Specification . 7 June 2009 . 6 June 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110606175357/https://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=11633 . live .
  61. Web site: International Organization for Standardization . International Organization for Standardization . ISO 856:2008 Oil of peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.) . 7 June 2009 . 6 June 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110606175414/https://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=32041 . live .

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Peppermint".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.