Mental health of Jesus explained

The question of whether the historical Jesus was in good mental health has been explored by multiple psychologists, philosophers, historians, and writers. The first person, after several other attempts at tackling the subject, who broadly and thoroughly questioned the mental health of Jesus was French psychologist Charles Binet-Sanglé, the chief physician of Paris and author of a four-volume work French: La Folie de Jésus (The Madness of Jesus).[1] [2] [3] This view finds both supporters and opponents.

Opinions challenging the sanity of Jesus

The assessment of the sanity of Jesus first occurs in the gospels. The Gospel of Mark reports the opinion of members of his family who believe that Jesus "is beside himself." Some psychiatrists, religious scholars and writers explain that, according to the gospels, Jesus's family (Mark 3:21),[4] some followers (John 7:20,[5] see also John 11:41–53),[6] and contemporaries, at various points in time, regarded him as delusional, possessed by demons, or insane.[7]

The accusation contained in the Gospel of John is more literal:

, a lecturer at the University of Cambridge,[8] suggests in his article "The Madness of King Jesus: Why was Jesus Put to Death, but his Followers were not?" (2007)[7] and in his book The Madness of King Jesus (2010)[9] that Pilate and other Romans regarded Jesus as an insane lunatic.[7] According to the Gospels, Jesus was presented to Pilate and sentenced to death as a royal pretender, but the standard Roman procedure was the prosecution and execution of would-be insurgents with their leaders. Therefore, to suggest that Jesus was put to death by the Roman authorities as some kind of royal pretender does not explain sufficiently why he was executed, but his disciples were not.[7] Jean Meslier (1664–1729) had similar thoughts in the 18th century. In chapters 33 and 34 of his Testament, argues that Jesus "was really a madman, a fanatic" (French: étoit véritablement un fou, un insensé, un fanatique).[10] [11]

Challenging the sanity of Jesus continued in the 19th century with the first quest for the historical Jesus. David Friedrich Strauss (German: Das Leben Jesu, 1864)[12] claimed that Jesus was a fanatic.[13] Lemuel K. Washburn opined in a pamphlet Was Jesus insane? (1889) that "Jesus was not divine, but insane".[14] [15] Oskar Panizza introduced Jesus as a psychopathological and paranoid case.[16] [17] [18] Oskar Holtzmann in German: War Jesus Ekstatiker? (1903) presented Jesus as "ecstatic", which he described as a pathologically-strong excitability of the imagination and the power of will.[19] [20] (as George de Loosten, 1905) attempted to retrospectively diagnose Jesus as generally mentally ill, similarly to Jean Meslier.[21] (1905) determined Jesus to be either epileptic or paranoid. Using a few examples, he developed a description of the typical pathological prophet ("Prophetentypus") and applied it to Jesus.[22] (1908) hypothesised that the abnormalities he found in Jesus' behaviour could be explained by a nerve overstimulation (German: Nervenüberreizung).[23] However, it was not until the publication of Charles Binet-Sanglé's four-volume work French: La folie de Jésus from 1908 to 1915 that the topic was extensively and visibly discussed. Binet-Sanglé diagnosed Jesus as suffering from religious paranoia:[24]

His view was shared by the New York psychiatrist and neurologist,[25] who in 1912 published his study, Religion and Civilization: The Conclusions of a Psychiatrist, which enumerated a number of Jesus' mentally-aberrant behaviours. Hirsch agreed with Binet-Sanglé in that Jesus had been afflicted with hallucinations and pointed to his "megalomania, which mounted ceaselessly and immeasurably". Hirsch concluded that Jesus was just a "paranoid":

According to Hirsch, Jesus, as a typical paranoid, applied prophecies about the coming of the messiah to himself, and had a deep hatred towards anyone who disagreed with him on everything. The Soviet psychiatrist Y. V. Mints (1927) also diagnosed Jesus as suffering from paranoia.[26] [27] The literature of the Soviet Union in the 1920s, following the tradition of the demythologization of Jesus in the works of Strauss, Renan, Nietzsche, and Binet-Sanglé, put forward two main themes: mental illness and deception. That was reflected in Mikhail Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita in which Jesus is depicted by Pontius Pilate as a harmless madman. It was only at the turn of the 1920s and the 1930s that the mythological option, the denial of the existence of Jesus, won the upper hand in Soviet propaganda.[28] Jesus' mental health was also questioned by the British psychiatrists William Sargant and Raj Persaud,[29] [30] and a number of psychologists of the psychoanalytic orientation, like in his study French: Quelques traits de la vie de Jésus au point de vue psychologique et psychanalytique.[31] [32]

Władysław Witwicki, a rationalist philosopher and psychologist,[33] in the comments to his own translation of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, Polish: Dobra Nowina według Mateusza i Marka (), which is in fact a psychobiography of Jesus,[34] attributed that Jesus had subjectivism, an increased sense of his own power and superiority over others, egocentrism and the tendency to subjugate other people.[35] He also had difficulties communicating with the outside world, as well as dissociative identity disorder, which made him a schizothymic or even schizophrenic type (according to Ernst Kretschmer's typology).[36] [37] [38]

American philosopher and science skeptic Paul Kurtz, in one of his most influential writings, The Transcendental Temptation (1986, chapter Was Jesus disturbed?), notices that some passages in the gospels suggest that "Jesus was a disturbed personality." However, he notes, "It is difficult to be certain, since we have no way of submitting him to intensive psychiatric diagnosis." He states that if Jesus had any claim to divinity, "then he was deranged." According to Kurtz, Jesus "kept preaching that doomsday or the last days were at hand." In this context, he cites Matthew 16:28[39] and 24:34–35.[40] He also quotes passages in the gospels in which Jesus' family (Mark 3:20–21)[41] and other contemporary Jews (Mark 3:22,[42] John 10:20)[43] accused him of demonic possession and insanity.[44] [45]

The American theologian and psychologist of religion Donald Capps, in his book Jesus: A Psychological Biography (1989, 2000),[46] diagnosed Jesus as a utopian-melancholic personality (he looked forward to a coming kingdom of God) with suicidal tendencies.[47] New Testament scholar, in his essay contained in The Book Your Church Doesn't Want You To Read (1993), draws attention to the ever-increasing megalomania of "John's Jesus" (described in the Gospel of John 6:29, 35, 38, 40, 47-58; 7:38; 8:12; 11:25-26; 14:6, 13-14), and concludes:

The English psychiatrist Anthony Storr in his final book Feet of Clay; Saints, Sinners, and Madmen: A Study of Gurus (1996)[48] suggested that there are psychological similarities between crazy "messiahs" such as Jim Jones and David Koresh and respected religious leaders including Jesus.[49] Storr tracks typical patterns, often involving psychotic disorders that shape the development of the guru.[50] His study is an attempt to look at Jesus as one of many gurus. Storr agrees with most scholars of historical Jesus, who are inclined to the hypothesis of Jesus as apocalyptic prophet:

Storr recognises Jesus' many similarities to other gurus. It was, for example, going through a period of internal conflict during his fasting in the desert. According to Storr, if Jesus really considered himself a deputy for God and believed that one day he would come down from heaven to rule, he was very similar to the gurus whom he had previously described as preachers of delusions possessed by mania of greatness. He notes that Jesus was not ideal in family life (Mark 3:31–35,[51] Mark 13:12–13).[52] Gurus often remain indifferent to family ties. Other similarities, according to Storr, include Jesus' faith in receiving a special revelation from God and a tendency to elitism, in the sense that Jesus believed that he had been specially marked by God.

American neuroendocrinology researcher Robert Sapolsky in his essay included in the book The Trouble with Testosterone: and Other Essays on the Biology of the Human Predicament (1997, 1998)[53] suggests the occurrence of schizotypal ("half-crazy", p. 248) behavior and metamagical thinking in shamans, Jesus and other charismatic religious leaders:

Then Sapolsky notes that "plausible links can be made among schizotypal behaviour, metamagical thought, and the founding of certain religious beliefs in both non-Western and Western societies." (p. 256) According to him: "The notion of the psychopathology of the shaman works just as readily in understanding the roots of major Western religions as well." (p. 255)

In 1998–2000, Leszek Nowak (born 1962) from Poznań, Poland authored a study in which, based on his own history of religious delusion of mission and overvalued ideas and information communicated in the Gospels, made an attempt at reconstructing Jesus' psyche, with the view of Jesus as apocalyptic prophet,[54] taking into account the hypothesis of indirect suicide.[55] He does so in chapters containing, in sequence, an analysis of character traits of the "savior of mankind", a description of the possible course of events from the period of Jesus' public activity, and a naturalistic explanation of his miracles.

In 2012, a team of psychiatrists, behavioral psychologists, neurologists and neuropsychiatrists from the Harvard Medical School published a research that suggested the development of a new diagnostic category of psychiatric disorders related to religious delusion and hyperreligiosity. They compared the thoughts and behaviors of the most important figures in the Bible, such as Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Paul, with patients affected by mental disorders related to the psychotic spectrum using different clusters of disorders and diagnostic criteria (DSM-IV-TR), and concluded that these Biblical figures "may have had psychotic symptoms that contributed inspiration for their revelations", such as schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, delusional disorder, delusions of grandeur, auditory-visual hallucinations, paranoia, Geschwind syndrome (especially Paul), and abnormal experiences associated with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). According to the authors, in the case of Jesus, it could have been: paranoid schizophrenia, bipolar and schizoaffective disorders. They hypothesized that Jesus may have sought death through "suicide-by-proxy" (indirect suicide).

Opinions defending the sanity of Jesus

Opinions and publications questioning the sanity of Jesus, especially Georg Lomer, Charles Binet-Sanglé and William Hirsch, caused polemical reactions. They were first challenged by Albert Schweitzer in his doctoral thesis, The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism,[56] (German: Die psychiatrische Beurteilung Jesu: Darstellung und Kritik, 1913)[57] [58] [59] and by the American theologian in his 1922 book, The psychic health of Jesus. Bundy summarized his defense of Jesus′ sanity:[60]

Earlier the mental health of Jesus was defended by: the German Catholic theologian, professor of apologetics at the University of Würzburg, Philipp Kneib (German: [[Moderne Leben-Jesu-Forschung unter dem Einflusse der Psychiatrie]], 1908)[61] – against the arguments of Holtzmann, Lomer, Rasmussen and Baumann;[62] the German evangelical theologian and pastor (German: Die psychische Gesundheit Jesu, 1908)[63] – against the arguments of Holtzmann, Lomer and Rasmussen;[64] and also by the German psychiatrist, chief physician of the Friedrichsberg Mental Asylum in Hamburg, (German: Jesus in psychiatrischer Beleuchtung: eine Kontroverse, 1910)[65] – against the arguments of Lomer and Rasmussen.[66]

The mental health of Jesus is defended by Christian psychiatrists Olivier Quentin Hyder,[67] Pablo Martinez, and Andrew Sims.[68] [69] Christian apologists, such as Josh McDowell and Lee Strobel,[70] [71] also take up the subject of Jesus' sanity defense. The defense of Jesus' mental health was devoted to an editorial in the magazine of Italian Jesuits La Civiltà Cattolica, published November 5, 1994.[72] To the title question Italian: E se Gesù si fosse ingannato? ("What if Jesus had deceived himself?") the editors replied in the negative by arguing that Jesus was not a fanatic or megalomaniac but a mentally-healthy and very realistic person. Therefore, he did not deceive himself by saying that he was the messiah and the Son of God.[73]

American biblical scholar James H. Charlesworth, in his essay Jesus Research and the Appearance of Psychobiography (2002), discusses previous attempts to write a psychobiography of Jesus. In the final reflection, he suggests that earlier (created at the beginning of the 20th century) images of a mentally disturbed, paranoid Jesus with hallucinations resulted from comparing him to paranoids in the clinics of their creators and applying Freudian psychology to ancient sources. According to the author, Jesus' intentions should be examined in the context of his place and era, using historical research.[74]

Pope Benedict XVI wrote in his book (2007):

C. S. Lewis famously considered Jesus' mental health in what is known as Lewis's trilemma (the formulation quoted here is by John Duncan):

The agnostic atheist New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman wrote on his own blog:

References

Sources

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Book: Binet-Sanglé, Charles . La folie de Jésus . The Madness of Jesus . A. Maloine . Paris . 1908–1915 . fr . 1–4 . 08019439 . 4560820 .
  2. Book: Havis, Don . 2010 . Was Jesus Crazy? An Inquiry into the Mental Health of Jesus Christ . Not Resigned: Selected Works (1950-2010) . Bloomington, Indiana . Xlibris Corporation LLC . 143–158 . 978-1-4500-4754-8 . June 8, 2024.
  3. Havis . Don . An Inquiry into the Mental Health of Jesus: Was He Crazy? . Secular Nation . . Minneapolis . April–June 2001 . September 5, 2018 . 1530-308X.
  4. 3:21
  5. 7:20
  6. 11:41–53
  7. Meggitt . Justin J. . The Madness of King Jesus: Why was Jesus Put to Death, but his Followers not? . . 29 . 4 . 379–413 . June 1, 2007 . Sage Publications . London . 0142-064X . 10.1177/0142064X07078990 . 171007891 . free . registration .
  8. Web site: Dr Justin Meggitt – Faculty of Divinity . . 23 July 2013 . 2020-06-13.
  9. Book: Meggitt, Justin J. . The Madness of King Jesus: The Real Reasons for His Execution . I.B. Tauris . London . 2010 . 978-1-8488-5410-9.
  10. Book: Kryvelev, Iosif Aronovich . Iosif Kryvelev . Mentally Ill (according to J. Meslier, A. Binet-Sanglé and Ya. Mints) . http://www.autodidactproject.org/other/atheism-soviet-02.html . Christ: Myth or Reality? . Religious studies in the USSR; ser. 2 . "Social Sciences Today" Editorial Board . Moscow . 1987 . 87157196 . 64860072 . 2020-04-30.
  11. Book: Meslier, Jean . Le Testament . fr . 2 . A la Librairie Étrangère, Raison R.C. Meijer . Amsterdam . 1864 . 42–67 . 74194533 . 9806959 . OL38622065M.
  12. Book: Strauss, David Friedrich . Das Leben Jesu, für das deutsche Volk bearbeitet . 1864 . Leipzig . F.A. Brockhaus . 17022642 . 459102643 . OL18817475M.
  13. Book: Bundy, Walter E. . The Psychic Health of Jesus . The Macmillan Company . New York . 1922 . 4 . 22005555 . 644667928 . OL25583375M . registration .
  14. Book: Washburn, Lemuel K. . Was Jesus insane? . The Truth Seeker Company . New York . 1889 . 20 . 38939887.
  15. Book: Bundy, Walter E. . The Psychic Health of Jesus . The Macmillan Company . New York . 1922 . 27 . 22005555 . 644667928 . OL25583375M . registration .
  16. Panizza . Oskar . Christus in psicho-patologischer Beleuchtung . Zürcher Diskuszjonen . 5 . 1 . 1898. de . 1–8 . 782007054.
  17. Book: Düsterberg, Rolf . Die gedrukte Freiheit: Oskar Panizza und die Zürcher Diskussjonen . Frankfurt am Main . P. Lang . 1988 . Europäische Hochschulschriften; Reihe 1, Deutsche Sprache und Literatur; 1098 . de . 40–91 . 3-8204-0288-8.
  18. Book: Müller, Jürgen . Jürgen Müller . Oskar Panizza: Versuch einer immamenten Interpretation . Würzburg . 1990 . de . 248–256 . 923572143.
  19. Book: Holtzmann, Oskar . War Jesus Ekstatiker?: eine Untersuchung zum Leben Jesu . 1903 . Tübingen . J. C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck) . 1-332-63400-1 . 902994315 . OL21869475M . registration .
  20. Book: Bundy, Walter Ernest . https://archive.org/details/psychichealthofj00bund/page/n17/mode/2up . The psychic health of Jesus . 1921 . The Macmillan Company . XIV . Introduction . 22005555 . 644667928 . OL25583375M . O. Holtzmann presented Jesus as through and through an ecstatic character.
  21. Book: Lomer, Georg . Jesus Christus vom Standpunkte des Psychiaters: eine kritische Studie für Fachleute und gebildete Laien. 1905 . Bamberg . Handels-Druckerei . 31247627.
  22. Book: Rasmussen, Emil . Jesus, eine vergleichende psychologische Studie . de . Verlag Julius Zeitler . 1905 . Leipzig . 14790352 . OL20020984W . registration .
  23. Book: Baumann, Julius . Die Gemütsart Jesu : nach jetziger wissenschaftlicher, insbesondere jetziger psychologischer Methode erkennbar gemacht . Alfred Kröner . 1908 . Leipzig . 1091268451 . OL27164474M . registration .
  24. Gettis . Alan . The Jesus delusion: A theoretical and phenomenological look . . . 26 . 2 . June 1987 . 131–136 . 10.1007/BF01533683 . 0022-4197 . 27505915 . 4643399839 . 24301876 . 29415793.
  25. DR. WILLIAM HIRSCH; Retired Psychiatrist Had Served on Staffs of Hospitals Here . The New York Times . 1937-02-16 . en . 2024-01-16.
  26. Book: Irina . Sirotkina . Diagnosing Literary Genius: A Cultural History of Psychiatry in Russia, 1880–1930 . 2002 . Johns Hopkins University Press . Baltimore, Md . 978-0-8018-7689-9 . 169.
  27. Book: Я. В. . Клинический архив гениальности и одарённости (эвропатологии) . Минц . Иисус Христос – как тип душевнобольного . Jesus Christ: A Sample of Mentally Ill . Leningrad . 3 . 3 . ru . 1927 . 243–252.
  28. Дождикова . Надежда . Чем был недоволен Берлиоз? О романе М. А. Булгакова "Мастер и Маргарита" и "проблеме Христа" . . ru . 7 . 2009 . 0130-741X . https://web.archive.org/web/20181107174827/http://magazines.russ.ru/neva/2009/7/do28.html . November 7, 2018.
  29. Sargant . William . The movement in psychiatry away from the philosophical . . 14 . 22 August 1974 . 0140-0460 . Perhaps, even earlier, Jesus Christ might simply have returned to his carpentry following the use of modern [psychiatric] treatments..
  30. Web site: Health: A madman can look a lot like a messiah: There is no easy way for cult followers to tell if their leader is sane, says Raj Persaud . The Independent . 2018-10-25 . Persaud . Raj . 27 April 1993 . Two thousand years ago Jesus received a crown of thorns. Today the Messianic have electro-convulsive therapy..
  31. Book: Berguer, Georges . Quelques traits de la vie de Jésus: au point de vue psychologique et psychanalytique . fr . Edition Atar . Genève–Paris . 1920 . 417009760.
  32. Book: Berguer, Georges . Brooks . Eleanor Stimson . Brooks . Van Wyck . 1923 . Some aspects of the life of Jesus from the psychological and psycho-analytic point of view . New York . . 23012901 . 2628145 . OL6656731M . registration .
  33. Book: Nowicki, Andrzej . Andrzej Nowicki (philosopher) . Witwicki . Wiedza Powszechna . Warszawa . 1982 . pl . 7–9 . 83-214-0301-8.
  34. Citlak . Amadeusz . The Lvov-Warsaw School: The forgotten tradition of historical psychology . History of Psychology . . 19 . 2 . 2016 . 105–124 . 10.1037/hop0000029 . 27100926 . 22112845 . 1093-4510 . 6029347169.
  35. Book: Szmyd, Jan . Psychologiczny obraz religijności i mistyki: z badań psychologów polskich . Psychological picture of religiousness and mysticism: from the research of the Polish psychologists . Wydawn. Naukowe WSP . Kraków . 1996 . pl . 197 . 978-8-3868-4154-7 .
  36. Citlak . Amadeusz . Psychobiography of Jesus Christ in view of Władysław Witwicki's theory of cratism . Journal for Perspectives of Economic Political and Social Integration . Scientific Society KUL . 21 . 1–2 . 2015 . 155–184 . 10.2478/pepsi-2015-0007 . 151801662 . 2300-0945 . 998362074 . 2022-09-21. free .
  37. Book: Citlak, Amadeusz . Relacje społeczne świata antycznego w świetle teorii kratyzmu. Psychologia historyczna w szkole lwowsko-warszawskiej . Social relations of the ancient world in the light of the theory of cratism. Historical psychology in the Lwów–Warsaw school . Instytut Psychologii PAN . Warszawa . 2016 . 61–62 . pl . 978-83-939589-7-9.
  38. Web site: Jezus jako egocentryczny schizotymik . Jesus as an egocentric schizotymic . Jarzyńska . Karina . 2008-04-10 . Racjonalista . Fundacja Wolnej Myśli . pl . 2020-07-28.
  39. 16:28 RSV
  40. 24:34-35 RSV
  41. 3:20–21 RSV
  42. 3:22 RSV
  43. 10:20 RSV
  44. Book: Kurtz, Paul . 1991 . 1st pub. 1986 . Was Jesus disturbed? . The Transcendental Temptation: A Critique of Religion an the Paranormal . registration . Buffalo, NY . Prometheus Books . 130–132 . 0-87975-362-5.
  45. Book: Kurtz, Paul . 2013 . 1st pub. 1986 . Was Jesus disturbed? . https://books.google.com/books?id=PQh6AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false . July 30, 2024 . The Transcendental Temptation: A Critique of Religion an the Paranormal . Amherst, NY . Prometheus Books . 173–175 . 978-161614-828-7.
  46. Book: Capps, Donald . Jesus: A Psychological Biography . Chalice Press . St. Louis, Mo. . 2000 . 978-0-8272-1713-3 . registration .
  47. Book: Powell, Mark Allan . Mark Allan Powell . Psychological Studies of the Historical Jesus . http://cdn.bakerpublishinggroup.com/processed/esource-assets/files/1583/original/4.21.Psychological_Studies_of_the_Historical_Jesus.pdf?1523557820 . Introducing the New Testament (Supplement) . Baker Academic . Grand Rapids, Michigan . 2018 . 978-0-8010-9960-1.
  48. Book: Storr, Anthony . Feet of Clay; Saints, Sinners, and Madmen: A Study of Gurus . Free Press . New York . 1996 . 0-684-82818-9 . registration .
  49. News: Obituary: Anthony Storr . The Telegraph. 2001-03-21. 2019-08-13.
  50. Book: Feet Of Clay: The Power and Charisma of Gurus . Storytel . 2015-05-19 . 9781501122088 . Storr . Anthony . Simon and Schuster . https://web.archive.org/web/20221227181000/https://www.storytel.com/sg/en/books/feet-of-clay-the-power-and-charisma-of-gurus-303409 . 2022-12-27 .
  51. 3:31–35
  52. 13:12–13
  53. Book: Sapolsky, Robert M. . Circling the Blanket for God . The Trouble with Testosterone: and Other Essays on the Biology of the Human Predicament . A Touchstone Book, Simon & Schuster . New York . 1998 . 241–288 . 978-0-684-83409-2 . registration .
  54. Web site: Wielka pomyłka i rozczarowanie wczesnego chrześcijaństwa . Nowak . Leszek . opracowanie.eu . pl . A great mistake and disappointment of early Christianity . https://web.archive.org/web/20160201105355/http://opracowanie.eu/pomylka_2.htm . 2016-02-01.
  55. Web site: Prowokator . Nowak . Leszek . opracowanie.eu . pl . Instigator . https://web.archive.org/web/20150617201142/http://www.opracowanie.eu/prowokator.htm . 2015-06-17.
  56. Book: Schweitzer, Albert . Joy . Charles R. . The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism . Beacon Press . Boston . 1948 . 48006488 . 614572512 . OL6030284M . registration .
  57. Book: Schweitzer, Albert . Die psychiatrische Beurteilung Jesu: Darstellung und Kritik . J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck) . Tübingen . 1913 . de . 13021072 . 5903262 . OL20952265W . registration .
  58. Book: Schweitzer, Albert . Out of My Life and Thoughts . Johns Hopkins University Press . Antje Bultmann . Lemke . Baltimore, MD . 1998 . 108 . 978-0-8018-6097-3 . registration .
  59. Seidel . Michael . Albert Schweitzer's MD thesis on Criticism of the medical pathographies on Jesus . Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen . . 28 . 1 . January 2009 . 276–300 . 0177-5227 . 20509445.
  60. Book: Bundy, Walter E. . The Psychic Health of Jesus . The Macmillan Company . New York . 1922 . 22005555 . 644667928 . OL25583375M . registration .
  61. Book: Kneib, Philipp . Moderne Leben-Jesu-Forschung unter dem Einflusse der Psychiatrie . Modern Quest for the historical Jesus Under the Influence of Psychiatry . de . 1908 . Meinz . Verlag von Kirchheim & Co. . 936445547.
  62. Book: Bundy, Walter E. . The Psychic Health of Jesus . The Macmillan Company . New York . 1922 . 115116 . 22005555 . 644667928 . OL25583375M . registration .
  63. Book: Werner, Hermann . Die psychische Gesundheit Jesu . The Mental Health of Jesus . de . 1908 . Berlin . Edwin Runge . 874419014 . OL28410083M.
  64. Book: Bundy, Walter E. . The Psychic Health of Jesus . The Macmillan Company . New York . 1922 . 113115 . 22005555 . 644667928 . OL25583375M . registration .
  65. Book: Schaefer, Heinrich . Jesus in psychiatrischer Beleuchtung: eine Kontroverse . Jesus in Psychiatric Illumination: A Controversy . de . Ernst Hofmann & Co. . Berlin . 1910 . 3534777 . OL27210095M . registration .
  66. Book: Bundy, Walter E. . The Psychic Health of Jesus . The Macmillan Company . New York . 1922 . 116119, 277 . 22005555 . 644667928 . OL25583375M . registration .
  67. Hyder . Olivier Quentin . On the Mental Health of Jesus Christ . . . 5 . 1 . 1977-12-01 . 3–12 . 10.1177/009164717700500101 . 149626975 . 0091-6471 . 7318879878 .
  68. Book: Martinez . Pablo . Sims . Andrew . Mad or God? Jesus: The healthiest mind of all . InterVarsity Press . London . 2018 . 978-1-783-59606-5.
  69. Web site: Mad or God? A senior psychiatrist on the mental health of Jesus . Sims . Andrew . 2018-07-17 . Christian News on Christian Today . . 2018-08-23.
  70. Book: McDowell, Josh . Lord, Liar, or Lunatic? . More Than a Carpenter . Living Books . Wheaton, Illinois . 1977 . 22–32 . 978-0-8423-4552-1 . registration .
  71. Book: Strobel, Lee . The Psychological Evidence. Was Jesus Crazy When He Claimed to Be the Son of God? . https://books.google.com/books?id=3OO86CjXhJAC&pg=PA144 . The Case for Christ . Zondervan . Grand Rapids, Michigan . 1998 . 144–154 . 978-0-3102-0930-0 . September 8, 2023.
  72. E se Gesù si fosse ingannato? . it . La Civiltà Cattolica . 3465 . 213–225 . November 5, 1994 . 0009-8167 . 2021-04-20.
  73. Moynihan . Robert . Robert Moynihan . Was Jesus Deceived? . . December 1994 . 1068-8579 . 2021-04-20.
  74. Book: Charlesworth, James H. . Madsen . Truman G. . Truman G. Madsen . Parry . Donald W. . Donald W. Parry . Peterson . Daniel C. . Daniel C. Peterson . Ricks . Stephen D. . Stephen D. Ricks . Jesus Research and the Appearance of Psychobiography . https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=4&article=1066&context=mi&type=additional . Revelation, Reason, and Faith: Essays in Honor of Truman G. Madsen . Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship . Provo, Utah . 2002 . 0934893713.