In classical electromagnetism, magnetization is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments in a magnetic material. Accordingly, physicists and engineers usually define magnetization as the quantity of magnetic moment per unit volume.[1] It is represented by a pseudovector M. Magnetization can be compared to electric polarization, which is the measure of the corresponding response of a material to an electric field in electrostatics.
Magnetization also describes how a material responds to an applied magnetic field as well as the way the material changes the magnetic field, and can be used to calculate the forces that result from those interactions.
The origin of the magnetic moments responsible for magnetization can be either microscopic electric currents resulting from the motion of electrons in atoms, or the spin of the electrons or the nuclei. Net magnetization results from the response of a material to an external magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials have a weak induced magnetization in a magnetic field, which disappears when the magnetic field is removed. Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials have strong magnetization in a magnetic field, and can be magnetized to have magnetization in the absence of an external field, becoming a permanent magnet. Magnetization is not necessarily uniform within a material, but may vary between different points.
The magnetization field or M-field can be defined according to the following equation:
Where
dm
dV
dp
Those definitions of P and M as a "moments per unit volume" are widely adopted, though in some cases they can lead to ambiguities and paradoxes.[1]
The M-field is measured in amperes per meter (A/m) in SI units.[2]
The behavior of magnetic fields (B, H), electric fields (E, D), charge density (ρ), and current density (J) is described by Maxwell's equations. The role of the magnetization is described below.
See main article: Magnetic field.
The magnetization defines the auxiliary magnetic field H as
B=\mu0(H+M)
B=H+4\piM
A relation between M and H exists in many materials. In diamagnets and paramagnets, the relation is usually linear:
M=\chiH,B=\muH=\mu0(1+\chi)H,
-M ⋅ B=-\chiH ⋅ B=-
| \chi | |
| 1+\chi |
| B2 | |
| \mu0 |
,
In diamagnets (
\chi<0
\chi>0
|\chi|\ll1
M ≈ \chi
| B | |
| \mu0 |
In ferromagnets there is no one-to-one correspondence between M and H because of magnetic hysteresis.
Alternatively to the magnetization, one can define the magnetic polarization, (often the symbol is used, not to be confused with current density).[3]
B=\mu0H+I
This is by direct analogy to the electric polarization,
D=\varepsilon0E+P
I=\mu0M
Whereas magnetization is given with the unit ampere/meter, the magnetic polarization is given with the unit tesla.
The magnetization M makes a contribution to the current density J, known as the magnetization current.[4]
Jm=\nabla x M
Km=M x \hat{n
J=Jf+\nabla x M+
| \partialP | |
| \partialt |
See main article: Magnetostatics.
In the absence of free electric currents and time-dependent effects, Maxwell's equations describing the magnetic quantities reduce to
\begin{align} \nabla x H&=0\\ \nabla ⋅ H&=-\nabla ⋅ M \end{align}
These equations can be solved in analogy with electrostatic problems where
\begin{align} \nabla x E&=0\\ \nabla ⋅ E&=
| \rho | |
| \epsilon0 |
\end{align}
In this sense −∇⋅M plays the role of a fictitious "magnetic charge density" analogous to the electric charge density ρ; (see also demagnetizing field).
See main article: Magnetization dynamics. The time-dependent behavior of magnetization becomes important when considering nanoscale and nanosecond timescale magnetization. Rather than simply aligning with an applied field, the individual magnetic moments in a material begin to precess around the applied field and come into alignment through relaxation as energy is transferred into the lattice.
Magnetization reversal, also known as switching, refers to the process that leads to a 180° (arc) re-orientation of the magnetization vector with respect to its initial direction, from one stable orientation to the opposite one. Technologically, this is one of the most important processes in magnetism that is linked to the magnetic data storage process such as used in modern hard disk drives. As it is known today, there are only a few possible ways to reverse the magnetization of a metallic magnet:
See main article: Degaussing. Demagnetization is the reduction or elimination of magnetization.[5] One way to do this is to heat the object above its Curie temperature, where thermal fluctuations have enough energy to overcome exchange interactions, the source of ferromagnetic order, and destroy that order. Another way is to pull it out of an electric coil with alternating current running through it, giving rise to fields that oppose the magnetization.[6]
One application of demagnetization is to eliminate unwanted magnetic fields. For example, magnetic fields can interfere with electronic devices such as cell phones or computers, and with machining by making cuttings cling to their parent.