The long s, (ſ), also known as the medial s or initial s, is an archaic form of the lowercase letter (s), found mostly in works from the late 8th to early 19th centuries. It replaced the single s, or one or both of the letters s in a double-s sequence (e.g., "ſinfulneſs" for "sinfulness" and "poſſeſs" or "poſseſs" for "possess", but never "poſſeſſ"). The modern (s) letterform is known as the "short", "terminal", or "round" s. In typography, the long s is known as a type of swash letter, commonly referred to as a "swash s".[1] The long s is the basis of the first half of the grapheme of the German alphabet ligature letter (ß),[2] (German: [[eszett]] or German: scharfes s, 'sharp s
This list of rules for the long s is not exhaustive, and it applies only to books printed during the 17th to early 19th centuries in English-speaking countries.[3] Similar rules exist for other European languages.
Otherwise, long s was used: "ſong", "ſubſtitute".
In handwriting, these rules did not apply—the long s was usually confined to preceding a round s, either in the middle or at the end of a word—for example, "aſsure", "bleſsings".
The long s was derived from the old Roman cursive medial s, .[5] When the distinction between majuscule (uppercase) and minuscule (lowercase) letter forms became established, toward the end of the eighth century, it developed a more vertical form.[6] During this period, it was occasionally used at the end of a word, a practice that quickly died but that was occasionally revived in Italian printing between about 1465 and 1480. Thus, the general rule that the long s never occurred at the end of a word is not strictly correct, although the exceptions are rare and archaic. The double s in the middle of a word was also written with a long s and a short s, as in: "Miſsiſsippi".[7] In German typography, the rules are more complicated: short s also appears at the end of each component within a compound word, and there are more detailed rules and practices for special cases.
thumb |Two words ("ſecret foe") extracted from the 1667 printing of the poem "Paradise Lost" (Book IV page 1), showing long s and fThe long s is often confused with the minuscule (f), sometimes even having an f-like nub at its middle but on the left side only in various roman typefaces and in blackletter. There was no nub in its italic type form, which gave the stroke a descender that curled to the left and which is not possible without kerning in the other type forms mentioned. For this reason, the short s was also normally used in combination with f: for example, in "ſatisfaction".
The nub acquired its form in the blackletter style of writing. What looks like one stroke was actually a wedge pointing downward. The wedge's widest part was at that height (x-height) and capped by a second stroke that formed an ascender that curled to the right. Those styles of writing, and their derivatives, in type design had a crossbar at the height of the nub for letters f and t, as well as for k. In roman type, except for the crossbar on medial s, all other cross bars disappeared.
The long s was used in ligatures in various languages. Four examples were (si), (ss), (st), and the German letter German: [[ß|Eszett]] (ß).The present-day German letter ß (German: Eszett or German: scharfes s; also used in Low German and historical Upper Sorbian orthographies) is generally considered to have originated in a (Fraktur) ligature of (ſz) (which is supported by the fact that the second part of the (ß) grapheme usually resembles a Fraktur z: (
ak{z}
ak{z}
Some old orthographic systems of Slavonic and Baltic languages used (ſ) and (s) as two separate letters with different phonetic values. For example, the Bohorič alphabet of the Slovene language included (ſ) pronounced as //s//, (s) pronounced as //z//, (ſh) pronounced as //ʃ//, (sh) pronounced as //ʒ//. In the original version of the alphabet, majuscule (S) was shared by both letters.
In general, the long s fell out of use in roman and italic typefaces in professional printing well before the middle of the 19th century. It rarely appears in good-quality London printing after 1800, though it lingers provincially until 1824 and is found in handwriting into the second half of the nineteenth century,[9] and is sometimes seen later on in archaic or traditionalist printing such as printed collections of sermons. Woodhouse's The Principles of Analytical Calculation, published by the Cambridge University Press in 1803, uses the long s throughout its roman text.[10]
The long s disappeared from new typefaces rapidly in the mid-1790s, and most printers who could afford to do so had discarded older typefaces by the early years of the 19th century. Pioneer of type design John Bell (1746–1831), who started the British Letter Foundry in 1788, is often "credited with the demise of the long s".[11] Paul W. Nash concluded that the change mostly happened very fast in 1800, and believes that this was triggered by the Seditious Societies Act. To discourage subversive publications, this required printing to name the identity of the printer, and so in Nash's view gave printers an incentive to make their work look more modern.[12]
Unlike the 1755 edition, which uses the long s throughout,[13] the 1808 edition of the Printer's Grammar describes the transition away from the use of the long s among type founders and printers in its list of available sorts:
An individual instance of an important work using s instead of the long s occurred in 1749, with Joseph Ames's Typographical Antiquities, about printing in England 1471–1600, but "the general abolition of long s began with John Bell's British Theatre (1791)".
In Spain, the change was mainly accomplished between the years 1760 and 1766; for example, the multivolume Spanish; Castilian: España Sagrada made the switch with volume 16 (1762). In France, the change occurred between 1782 and 1793: François Didot designed Didone to be used substantially without long s. The change happened in Italy at about the same time: Giambattista Bodoni also designed his Bodoni typeface without long s. Printers in the United States stopped using the long s between 1795 and 1810: for example, acts of Congress were published with the long s throughout 1803, switching to the short s in 1804. In the US, a late use of the long s was in Low's Encyclopaedia, which was published between 1805 and 1811. Its reprint in 1816 was one of the last such uses recorded in the US. The most recent recorded use of the long s typeset among English printed Bibles can be found in the Lunenburg, Massachusetts, 1826 printing by W. Greenough and Son. The same typeset was used for the 1826 printed later by W. Greenough and Son, and the statutes of the United Kingdom's colony Nova Scotia also used the long s as late as 1816. Some examples of the use of the long and short s among specific well-known typefaces and publications in the UK include the following:
When the War of 1812 began, the contrast between the non-use of the long s by the United States, and its continued use by the United Kingdom, is illustrated by the Twelfth US Congress's use of the short s of today in the US declaration of war against the United Kingdom, and, in contrast, the continued use of long s within the text of Isaac Brock's counterpart document responding to the declaration of war by the US.
Early editions of Scottish poet Robert Burns that have lost their title page can be dated by their use of the long s; that is, James Currie's edition of the Works of Robert Burns (Liverpool, 1800 and many reprintings) does not use the long s, while editions from the 1780s and early 1790s do.
In printing, instances of the long s continue in rare and sometimes notable cases in the UK until the end of the 19th century, possibly as part of a consciously antiquarian revival of old-fashioned type. For example:
In Germany, Fraktur-family typefaces (such as Tannenberg, used by Deutsche Reichsbahn for station signage, as illustrated above) continued in widespread official use until the "Normal Type" decree of 1941 required that they be phased out. (Private use had already largely ceased.) The long s survives in Fraktur typefaces.
After its decline and disappearance in printing in the early years of the 19th century, the long s persisted into the second half of the century in manuscript. In handwriting used for correspondence and diaries, its use for a single s seems to have disappeared first: most manuscript examples from the 19th century use it for the first s in a double s. For example,
For these as well as others, the handwritten long s may have suggested type and a certain formality as well as the traditional. Margaret Mathewson "published" her Sketch of 8 Months a Patient in the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, A.D. 1877 of her experiences as a patient of Joseph Lister in the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh by writing copies out in manuscript. In place of the first s in a double s, Mathewson recreated the long s in these copies, a practice widely used for both personal and business correspondence by her family, who lived on the remote island of Yell, Shetland. The practice of using the long s in handwriting on Yell, as elsewhere, may have been a carryover from 18th-century printing conventions, but it was not unfamiliar as a convention in handwriting.
The long s survives in elongated form, with an italic-styled curled descender, as the integral symbol ∫ used in calculus. Gottfried Leibniz based the character on the Latin Latin: summa ('sum'), which he wrote ſumma. This use first appeared publicly in his paper De Geometria, published in Acta Eruditorum of June 1686,[25] but he had been using it in private manuscripts at least since 29 October 1675.[26] The integral of a function with respect to a real variable over the interval is typeset as:
In linguistics, a similar character (pronounced as /ʃ/, called esh) is used in the International Phonetic Alphabet, in which it represents the voiceless postalveolar fricative, the first sound in the English word ship.
In Nordic and German-speaking countries, relics of the long s continue to be seen in signs and logos that use various forms of fraktur typefaces. Examples include the logos of the Norwegian newspapers Norwegian: [[Aftenposten|Aftenpoſten]] and Norwegian: [[Adresseavisen|Adresſeaviſen]]; the packaging logo for Finnish Finnish: italic=unset|[[Sisu (candy)|Siſu]] pastilles; and the German German: italic=unset|[[Jägermeister|Jägermeiſter]] logo.
The long s exists in some current OpenType digital fonts that are historic revivals, like Caslon, Garamond, and Bodoni.[27]
Some Latin alphabets devised in the 1920s for some Caucasian languages used the (ſ) for some specific sounds.[28] These orthographies were in actual use until 1938.[29] Some of these developed a capital form which resembles the IPA letter (ʕ) .
In the 1993 Turkmen orthography, (ſ) represented pronounced as /link/; however, it was replaced by 1999 by the letter (ž). The capital form was (£), which was replaced by (Ž).[30] [31]
See also: £sd. An echo of the long s survives today in the form of the mark, popularly known as a "slash" but formally named a solidus. The mark is an evolution of the long s which was used as the abbreviation for 'shilling' in Britain's pre-decimal currency, originally written as in 7ſ 6d, later as "7/6", meaning "seven shillings and six pence".[32]