Lobster-eye optics explained

Lobster-eye optics are a biomimetic design, based on the structure of the eyes of a lobster with an ultra wide field of view, used in X-ray optics. This configuration allows X-ray light to enter from multiple angles, capturing more X-rays from a larger area than other X-ray telescopes. The idea was originally proposed for use in X-ray astronomy by Roger Angel in 1979, with a similar idea presented earlier by W. K. H. Schmidt in 1975. It was first used by NASA on a sub-orbital sounding rocket experiment in 2012. The Lobster Eye Imager for Astronomy, a Chinese technology demonstrator satellite, was launched in 2022. The Chinese Einstein Probe, launched in 2024, is the first major space telescope to use lobster-eye optics. Several other such space telescopes are currently under development or consideration.

Description

While most animals have refractive eyes, lobsters and other crustaceans have reflective eyes.[1] The eyes of a crustacean contain clusters of cells, each reflecting a small amount of light from a particular direction. Lobster-eye optics technology mimics this reflective structure. This arrangement allows the light from a wide viewing area to be focused into a single image. The optics are made of microchannel plates. X-ray light can enter small tubes within these plates from multiple angles, and is focused through grazing-incidence reflection that gives a wide field of view. That, in turn, makes it possible to locate and image transient astronomical events that could not have been predicted in advance.[2]

The field of view (FoV) of a lobster-eye optic, which is the solid angle subtended by the optic plate to the curvature center, is limited only by the optic size for a given curvature radius. Since the micropore optics are spherically symmetric in essentially all directions, theoretically, an idealized lobster-eye optic is almost free from vignetting except near the edge of the FoV.[3] Micropore imagers are created from several layers of lobster-eye optics that creates an approximation of Wolter type-I optical design.[1]

History

Only three geometries that use grazing incidence reflection of X-rays to produce X-ray images are known: the Wolter system, the Kirkpatrick-Baez system, and the lobster-eye geometry.

The lobster-eye X-ray optics design was first proposed in 1979 by Roger Angel.[4] [5] His design is based on Kirkpatrick-Baez optics, but requires pores with a square cross-section, and is referred to as the "Angel multi-channel lens".[6] This design was inspired directly by the reflective properties of lobster eyes.[3] Before Angel, an alternative design involving a one-dimensional arrangement consisting of a set of flat reflecting surfaces had been proposed by W. K. H. Schmidt in 1975, known as the "Schmidt focusing collimator objective".[6] [7] [8] In 1989, physicists Keith Nugent and Stephen W. Wilkins collaborated to develop lobster-eye optics independently of Angel. Their key contribution was to open up an approach to manufacturing these devices using microchannel plate technology. This lobster-eye approach paved the way for X-ray telescopes with a 360-degree view of the sky.[9]

In 1992, Philip E. Kaaret and Phillip Geissbuehler proposed a new method for creating lobster-eye optics with microchannel plates.[10] Micropores required for lobster-eye optics are difficult to manufacture and have strict requirements. The pores must have widths between 0.01 and 0.5 mm and should have a length-to-width ratio of 20–200 (depends on the X-ray energy range); they need to be coated with a dense material for optimal X-ray reflection. The pore's inner walls must be flat and they should be organized in a dense array on a spherical surface with a radius of curvature of 2F, ensuring an open fraction greater than 50% and pore alignment accuracy between 0.1 and 5 arc minutes towards a common center.[6]

Similar optics designs include honeycomb collimators (used in NEAR Shoemaker's XGRS detectors and MESSENGER's XRS) and silicon pore imagers (developed by ESA for its planned ATHENA mission).[1]

Uses

NASA launched the first lobster-eye imager on a Black Brant IX sub-orbital sounding rocket in 2012. The STORM/DXL instrument (Sheath Transport Observer for the Redistribution of Mass/Diffuse X-ray emission from the Local galaxy) had micropore reflectors arranged in an array to form a Kirkpatrick-Baez system.[11] [12] BepiColombo, a joint ESA and JAXA Mercury mission launched in 2018, has a non-imaging collimator MIXS-C, with a microchannel geometry similar to the lobster-eye micropore design.[7] [13]

CNSA launched the Lobster-Eye X-ray Satellite in 2020, the first in-orbit lobster-eye telescope.[14] In 2022, the Chinese Academy of Sciences built and launched the Lobster Eye Imager for Astronomy (LEIA), a wide-field X-ray imaging space telescope. It is a technology demonstrator mission that tests the sensor design for the Einstein Probe. LEIA has a sensor module that gives it a field of view of 340 square degrees.[15] In August and September of 2022, LEIA conducted measurements to verify its functionality. A number of preselected sky regions and targets were observed, including the Galactic Center, the Magellanic Clouds, Sco X-1, Cas A, Cygnus Loop, and a few extragalactic sources. To eliminate interference from sunlight, the observations were obtained in Earth's shadow, starting 2 minutes after the satellite entered the shadow and ending 10 minutes before leaving it, resulting in an observational duration of ~23 minutes in each orbit. The CMOS detectors were operating in the event mode.[3]

Current and future space telescopes

The Einstein Probe, a joint mission by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) in partnership with the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, was launched on 9 January 2024.[16] It uses a 12-sensor module wide-field X-ray telescope for a 3600 square degree field of view, first tested by the Lobster Eye Imager for Astronomy mission.[15]

The joint French-Chinese SVOM was launched on 22 June 2024.[17]

NASA's Goddard Space Center proposed an instrument that uses the lobster-eye design for the ISS-TAO mission (Transient Astrophysics Observatory on the International Space Station), called the X-ray Wide-Field Imager.[2] ISS-Lobster is a similar concept by ESA.[18]

Several space telescopes that use lobster-eye optics are under construction. SMILE, a space telescope project by ESA and CAS, is planned to be launched in 2025.[19] ESA's THESEUS is now under consideration.[20]

Other uses

Lobster-eye optics can also be used for backscattering imaging for homeland security, detection of improvised explosive devices, nondestructive testing, and medical imaging.[21]

Notes and References

  1. Book: Kitchin . C. R. . Remote and Robotic Investigations of the Solar System . 18 September 2017 . CRC Press . 978-1-4987-0494-6 . 123–128 . 9 February 2024 . en . 14 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240214200615/https://books.google.co.il/books?id=TDsPEAAAQBAJ . live .
  2. Web site: Proposed NASA Mission Employs "Lobster-Eye" Optics to Locate Source of Cosmic Ripples - NASA . NASA . 29 December 2023 . 26 October 2017 . 29 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231229113457/https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/proposed-nasa-mission-employs-lobster-eye-optics-to-locate-source-of-cosmic-ripples/ . live .
  3. Zhang . C. . Ling . Z. X. . Sun . X. J. . 1 . First Wide Field-of-view X-Ray Observations by a Lobster-eye Focusing Telescope in Orbit . The Astrophysical Journal Letters . 1 December 2022 . 941 . 1 . L2 . 10.3847/2041-8213/aca32f . free . 2211.10007 . 2022ApJ...941L...2Z . 2041-8205. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
  4. Angel . J. R. P. . Lobster eyes as X-ray telescopes . Astrophysical Journal . Oct 1, 1979 . 233 . Part 1 . 364–373 . 10.1086/157397 . 1979ApJ...233..364A . free .
  5. Hartline . Beverly Karplus . Lobster-Eye X-ray Telescope Envisioned . Science . 4 January 1980 . 207 . 4426 . 47 . 10.1126/science.207.4426.47 . 1980Sci...207...47K . 29 December 2023 . en . 0036-8075 . 29 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231229113457/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.207.4426.47 . live .
  6. Book: Richard Willingale . Sternberg . Amiel . Burrows . David N . The WSPC Handbook of Astronomical Instrumentation: Volume 4: X-Ray Astronomical Instrumentation . July 2021 . World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. . 978-981-4644-38-9 . 33-47, 85-106 . 1 January 2024 . en . Lobster Eye Optics . 4 . 10.1142/9446-vol4 . 2021hai4.book.....B . 14 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240214200500/https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9446-vol4#t=aboutBook . live .
  7. Book: Hudec . Rene . Feldman . Charly . Handbook of X-ray and Gamma-ray Astrophysics . 2022 . Springer Nature . 978-981-16-4544-0 . 1–39 . en . Lobster Eye X-ray Optics . 10.1007/978-981-16-4544-0_3-1 . 2208.07149 . 260481363 . 2023-12-29 . 2023-12-29 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231229164959/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-16-4544-0_3-1 . live .
  8. A proposed X-ray focusing device with wide field of view for use in X-ray astronomy. W. K. H.. Schmidt. August 1, 1975. Nuclear Instruments and Methods. 127. 2. 285–292. ScienceDirect. 10.1016/0029-554X(75)90501-7. 1975NucIM.127..285S .
  9. Web site: 2004-08-19. Scientist has an all-seeing eye on the future. 2021-12-17. The Age. en. 2021-12-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20211217071131/https://www.theage.com.au/national/scientist-has-an-all-seeing-eye-on-the-future-20040819-gdyhdr.html. live.
  10. Lobster-eye x-ray optics using microchannel plates. Kaaret, Philip E.. Geissbuehler, Phillip. Richard B. . Hoover . 1992. SPIE Proceedings. Multilayer and Grazing Incidence X-Ray/EUV Optics . 1546 . 82 . 10.1117/12.51261. 1992SPIE.1546...82K . 121803620 . 2024-02-01. 2024-02-14. https://web.archive.org/web/20240214200509/https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/account/oauthlogin?error=login_required&state=OpenIdConnect.AuthenticationProperties%3DWmaKZR3FL5Jree6KyOYSGG3cKrMsKEzZyt9WDri3u_oHV2GXBG--cIy2xmlViKSs7A1_S7sZR-WdoAPYIttBK5EZ1qfL5KbX_-jgr9zX65_Z8vCqhMFMZChwUh_8uelA-amRrihZdRaVIrF3acs6919dUJhQFHWk6H-IUeSZoVY82E7JIs-AngAQ0ptR75dgzdeVxJCYJcLMaWRpmcm0ks4hBW0kHAzM9SlBr79cH1IYdrLc11yKW8ABqtLQB9JE_qWhs5n9z2Iut96FKFP6t8XD3jeDSEdLnC-Nu0-yvSbf-Zt2iMSfmHcMIBeBdobLFEb5_psxB5LzssnHhlIE_-AhM0k&session_state=5RKJhHTeSGDVD4DkM3tw3-3Bf4xlKcwqTg7qxUWHyz4.26D65A371BEF9C6474C0354F13552058#_=_. live.
  11. Collier . Michael R. . Porter . F. Scott . Sibeck . David G. . Carter . Jenny A. . Chiao . Meng P. . Chornay . Dennis J. . Cravens . Thomas E. . Galeazzi . Massimiliano . Keller . John W. . Koutroumpa . Dimitra . Kujawski . Joseph . Kuntz . Kip . Read . Andy M. . Robertson . Ina P. . Sembay . Steve . Snowden . Steven L. . Thomas . Nicholas . Uprety . Youaraj . Walsh . Brian M. . Invited Article: First flight in space of a wide-field-of-view soft x-ray imager using lobster-eye optics: Instrument description and initial flight results . 1 . Review of Scientific Instruments . 1 July 2015 . 86 . 7 . 10.1063/1.4927259 . 26233339 . 2015RScI...86g1301C . 9 February 2024 . 1808/22116 . free . 5 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231205082239/https://pubs.aip.org/aip/rsi/article/86/7/071301/824620/Invited-Article-First-flight-in-space-of-a-wide . live .
  12. Web site: Keesey . Lori . Center . NASA's Goddard Space Flight . NASA scientists build first-ever wide-field X-ray imager . phys.org . 9 February 2024 . en . 3 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203110709/https://phys.org/news/2013-02-nasa-scientists-first-ever-wide-field-x-ray.html . live .
  13. Web site: MIXS - BepiColombo - Cosmos . www.cosmos.esa.int . 16 February 2024.
  14. Web site: Launch of the world's first soft X-ray satellite with 'Lobster-Eye' imaging technology . 2021-12-17 . phys.org . en . 2021-12-17 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211217071131/https://phys.org/news/2020-07-world-soft-x-ray-satellite-lobster-eye.html . live .
  15. Web site: Einstein Probe Time Domain Astronomical Information Center . ep.bao.ac.cn . 28 December 2023 . 28 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231228121939/https://ep.bao.ac.cn/ep/cms/article/view?id=91 . live .
  16. Web site: January 9, 2024. Einstein Probe lifts off on a mission to monitor the X-ray sky. The European Space Agency. www.esa.int. February 6, 2024. January 9, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240109092739/https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/01/Einstein_Probe_lifts_off_on_a_mission_to_monitor_the_X-ray_sky. live.
  17. Web site: The MXT and the lobster eye - Svom. China National Space Administration (CNSA); Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); French Space Agency (CNES). 2024-02-06. 2023-10-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20231004194123/https://www.svom.eu/en/mxt-langouste-en/. live.
  18. Book: Camp . Jordan . Barthelmy . Scott . Petre . Rob . Gehrels . Neil . Marshall . Francis . Ptak . Andy . Racusin . Judith . ISS-Lobster: a low-cost wide-field x-ray transient detector on the ISS . Proceedings of SPIE: EUV and X-ray Optics. Synergy between Laboratory and Space IV. 9510. The International Society for Optical Engineering. 12 May 2015 . 951007 . 10.1117/12.2176745. 9781628416312 . 117082454 . 1. 923760787.
  19. Branduardi-Raymont. G.. Wang. C. . Escoubet. C.P.. etal. ESA SMILE definition study report. 2018. European Space Agency. 10.5270/esa.smile.definition_study_report-2018-12. ESA/SCI(2018)1. 1–84. 239612452 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230422225218/https://www.cosmos.esa.int/documents/1655046/0/SMILE_RedBook_ESA_SCI_2018_1.pdf. 2023-04-22. live.
  20. Book: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Realitivity . Amati . Lorenzo . The Transient High-Energy Sky and Early Universe Surveyor (THESEUS) . December 2017 . World Scientific Publishing . 3295–3300 . 10.1142/9789813226609_0421 . 1907.00616 . 978-981-322-659-3 . 2024-02-06 . 2024-02-14 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240214200501/https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/epdf/10.1142/10614 . live .
  21. Ma . Shizhang . Ouyang . Mingzhao . Fu . Yuegang . Hu . Yuan . Zhang . Yuhui . Yang . Yuxiang . Wang . Shengyu . Analysis of Imaging Characteristics of Wide-field Lobster Eye Lens . Journal of Physics: Conference Series . September 2023 . 2597 . 1 . 012010 . 10.1088/1742-6596/2597/1/012010 . 2023JPhCS2597a2010M . en . 1742-6596 . free . Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0

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