List of tributary states of China explained

This is a list of states that paid tribute to the Imperial dynasties of China under the tributary system. It encompassed states in Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.[1]

List of tributaries

In the 5th century, a status hierarchy was an explicit element of the tributary system in which Korea and Vietnam were ranked higher than others, including Japan, the Ryukyus, Siam and others.[2] All diplomatic and trade missions were construed in the context of a tributary relationship with China,[3] including:

By dynasty

Western Han

Xin

During Wang Mang's reign, relations with many of the empire's allies and tributaries deteriorated, due in large part to Wang Mang's arrogance and inept diplomacy.

Eastern Han

Jin, Northern and Southern, Tang

In the 5th century the Wa (Japan during the Kofun period) sent five tributes to the Jin and to the Liu Song dynasty and the emperors promoted the five kings to the title like Supreme Military Commander of the Six States of Wa, Silla, Mimana, Gaya, Jinhan and Mahan.

According to the Xīn Táng shū the kingdom of Zhēnlà had conquered different principalities in Northwestern Cambodia after the end of the Yǒnghuī (永徽) era (i.e. after 31 January 656), which previously (in 638/39) paid tribute to China.[49]

The Chinese retaliated against Cham which was raiding the Rinan coast around 430s-440s by seizing Qusu, and then plundering the capital of the Cham around Huế. Around 100,000 jin in gold was the amount of plunder. Lin Yi then paid 10,000 jin in gold, 100,000 jin in silver, and 300,000 jin in copper in 445 as tribute to China. The final tribute paid to China from Lin Yi was in 749, among the items were 100 strings of pearls, 30 jin gharuwood, baidi, and 20 elephants.[50]

Enslaved people from tributary countries were sent to Tang China by various groups, the Cambodians sent albinos, the Uyghurs sent Turkic Karluks, the Japanese sent Ainu, and Göktürk (Tujue) and Tibetan girls were also sent to China.[51] Prisoners captured from Liaodong, Korea, and Japan were sent as tribute to China from Balhae.[52] Tang dynasty China received 11 Japanese girl dancers as tribute from Balhae in 777.[53]

Song

The Song dynasty received 302 tribute missions from other countries. Vietnamese missions consisted of 45 of them, another 56 were from Champa. More tribute was sent by Champa in order to curry favor from China against Vietnam.[54] Champa brought as tribute Champa rice, a fast-growing rice strain, to China, which massively increased Chinese yields of rice.[55] [56]

In 969 the son of King Li Shengtian named Zongchang sent a tribute mission to China. According to Chinese accounts, the King of Khotan offered to send in tribute to the Chinese court a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar in 970.[57]

Yuan

The Mongols extracted tribute from throughout their empire.[58] From Goryeo, they received gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons.[59] [60] The tribute payments were a burden on Goryeo and subjugated polities in the empire.[61] As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided palace women, eunuchs, Buddhist monks, and other personnel to the Mongols.[62]

Just as Korean women entered the Yuan court, the Korean Koryo kingdom also saw the entry of Mongol women.[63] Great power was attained by some of the Korean women who entered the Yuan court.[64] One example is the Empress Ki (Qi) and her eunuch Bak Bulhwa when they attempted a major coup of Northern China and Koryo.[65] King Ch'ungson (1309 - 1313) married two Mongol women, Princess Botasirin and a non-royal woman named Yesujin. She gave birth to a son and had a posthumous title of "virtuous concubine". In addition 1324, the Yuan court sent a Mongol princess of Wei named Jintong to the Koryo King Ch'ungsug.[66]

The entry of Korean women into the Yuan court was reciprocated by the entry of Yuan princesses into the Goryeo court, and this affected relations between Korea and the Yuan. Marriages between the imperial family of Yuan existed between certain states. These included the Onggirat tribe, Idug-qut's Uighur tribe, the Oirat tribe, and the Koryo (Korean) royal family.[67] [68]

Ming

Under the Ming dynasty, countries that wanted to have any form of relationship with China, political, economic or otherwise, had to enter the tribute system. As a result, tribute was often paid for opportunistic reasons rather than as a serious gesture of allegiance to the Chinese emperor, and the mere fact that tribute was paid may not be understood in a way that China had political leverage over its tributary.[69] Also some tribute missions may just have been up by ingenious traders. A number of countries only paid tribute once, as a result of Zheng He's expeditions. As of 1587, in Chinese sources the following countries are listed to have paid tribute to the Ming emperors:[70]

The Hongwu Emperor started tributary relations in 1368, emissaries being sent to countries like Korea, Vietnam, Champa, Japan, of which Korea, Vietnam, and Champa sent back tribute in 1369. During Hongwu's rule, Liuch'iu sent 20, Korea sent 20, Champa sent 19, and Vietnam sent 14 tribute missions.[71] The tribute system was an economically profitable form of government trade, and Korea requested and successfully increased the number of tributes sent to Ming from once every three years to three times each year starting in 1400, and eventually four times each year starting in 1531.[72]

The 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa and Ming Turpan Border Wars were either started by or marked by disruptions in the tribute system.

Tribute in the form of servants, eunuchs, and virgin girls came from: Ming's various ethnic-minority tribes, tribes on the Mongolian Plateau, Korea,[75] Vietnam,[76] Cambodia, Central Asia, Siam, Champa, and Okinawa.[77]

There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor,[78] [79] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan.[80] In 1381, Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were captured from Yunnan, and possibly among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He.[81] Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[82]

During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors, when their demands were not met. Some of the ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king.[83] [84] Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries. A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming.[85]

On 30 Jan 1406, the Ming Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs in order to give them to Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.[86]

Joseon sent a total of 114 women to the Ming dynasty, consisting of 16 virgin girls, accompanied by 48 female servants, 42 cooks (執饌女), and 8 musical performers (歌舞女).[87] [88] The women were sent to the Yongle and Xuande emperors in a total of 7 missions between 1408 and 1433. Xuande was the last Ming emperor to receive human tribute from Korea.[89] with his death in 1435, 53 Korean women were repatriated.[90] [91] There was much speculation that the Yongle Emperor's real mother was a Korean[92] [93] [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] [100] or Mongolian[101] concubine.[102] [103] [104] Relations between Ming China and Joseon Korea improved dramatically and became much more amicable and mutually profitable during Yongle's reign. Yongle and Xuande were said to have a penchant for Korean cuisine and women.[105] [106]

An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam, due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[107] Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque. Central Asian women were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by a Muslim guard and Sayyid Hussein from Hami.[108] The guard was Yu Yung and the women were Uighur.[109]

It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[110] The speculation of him becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched behavior along with his concubines of foreign origin.[111] Muslim Central Asian girls were favored by Zhengde, with Korean girls being favored by Xuande.[112] A Uighur concubine was kept by Zhengde.[113] Uighur and Mongol women were favored by the Zhengde emperor.[114]

Qing

This list covers states that sent tribute between 1662 and 1875, and were not covered under the Lifan Yuan. Therefore, Tibet or the Khalkha are not included, although they did send tribute in the period given:[115]

After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon.[123] [124] [125] [126] [127] [128] [129] In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).[130] The Princess' name in Korean was Uisun, she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's (Kumrimgoon) daughter.[131] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[132]

The tribute system did not dissolve in 1875, but tribute embassies became less frequent and regular: twelve more Korean embassies until 1894, one more (abortive) from Liuqiu in 1877, three more from Vietnam, and four from Nepal, the last one in 1908.[115]

In 1886, after Britain took over Burma, they maintained the sending of tribute to China, putting themselves in a lower status than in their previous relations.[133] It was agreed in the Burma convention in 1886 that China would recognize Britain's occupation of Upper Burma while Britain continued the Burmese payment of tribute every ten years to Peking.[134]

See also

General:

References

Sources

External links

Notes and References

  1. Gundry, R. S. "China and her Tributaries,"
  2. Kang, David C. (2010).
  3. Wang, Zhenping. (2005). ; excerpt, criticizing "the western tributary theory, which sees the world only from the viewpoint of the Chinese and overly simplifies the intricate domestic and international situations ...."
  4. Web site: Malaysia-Philippines Territorial Dispute: The Sabah Case. Mohammad Al-Mahdi Tan Kho. Hurng-yu Chen. NCCU Institutional Repository. National Chengchi University. July 2014. 9 May 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160509133532/http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/68001/1/015101.pdf. 9 May 2016. dead.
  5. Web site: Examining the Connection Between Ancient China and Borneo Through Santubong Archaeological Sites. Wan Kong Ann. Victor H. Mair. Paula Roberts. Mark Swofford. Tsinghua University and Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania. Sino-Platonic Papers. April 2013. 14 May 2016. 2157-9687. https://web.archive.org/web/20160514050717/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp236_china_borneo_santubong.pdf. 14 May 2016. dead.
  6. Web site: Boni in Chinese Sources: Translations of Relevant Texts from the Song to the Qing Dynasties . . . 1 June 2014 . Johannes L. Kurz . 1 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140522195229/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/SEA-China-Interactions-Cluster/Others/BoniInChineseSources-edited4.pdf . 22 May 2014 .
  7. Kerr, George. (2000).
  8. Shambaugh, David L. et al. (2008). citing the 1818 Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty (DaQing hui-tien)
  9. Web site: Funan. About.com. 2007-06-02. 2007-11-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20071109203840/http://goasia.about.com/library/weekly/blfunan.htm. live.
  10. Web site: The Kingdom of Funan and Chenla (First to Eighth Century AD). 2007-06-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20060503123723/http://www.geocities.com/khmerchronology/preangkor.htm. 2006-05-03.
  11. Chisholm, Hugh. (1911).
  12. Yoda, Yoshiie et al. (1996) ; excerpt, "While other countries in East Asia were almost consistently emeshed within the Chinese tribute system, Japan found itself sometimes inside sometimes outside of the system ...."
  13. According to the Book of Later Han vol. 85,, see Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File .
  14. Yoda, ; excerpt, "... Japanese missions to the Sui [Dynasty] (581–604) ... were recognized by the Chinese as bearers of imperial tribute ...."
  15. http://heritageofjapan.wordpress.com/6-nara-period-sees-the-nurturing-of-chinese-culture/in-the-shadow-of-the-chinese-empire/monks-on-a-mission/imperial-envoys-made-perilous-passages-on-kentoshi-sen-ships-to-tang-china/ Imperial envoys made perilous passages on kentoshi-sen ships to Tang China
  16. [:zh:s:隋書/卷81|Book of Sui, vol. 81]
  17. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Kentoshi" in ; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Loui
  18. Fogel, Joshua A. (2009).
  19. Yoda, ; excerpt, "Japanese missions to the ... Tang Dynasties were recognized by the Chinese as bearers of imperial tribute; however, in the middle of the ninth century -- the early Heian Period -- Japan rescinded he sending of missions to the Tang Empire. Subsequently Japan conducted a flourishing trade with China and for the next five hundred years also imported much of Chinese culture, while nevertheless remaining outside the tribute system."
  20. Edwin O. Reischauer (1955). Ennin's travels in T'ang China: Chapter III - Kentoshi.
  21. [:zh:s:舊唐書/卷199上|Old book of Tang, vol. 199]
  22. Fogel, ; Goodrich, Luther Carrington et al. (1976). ; note: the economic benefit of the Sinocentric tribute system was profitable trade. The tally trade (kangō bōeki or kanhe maoyi in Chinese) was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese -- see Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric et al. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia, p. 471.
  23. Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank.
  24. Kerr, George. (2000).
  25. Kerr,
  26. Web site: The Ancient Ryukyus Period/The Sanzan Period . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20070927010111/http://www.wonder-okinawa.jp/002/003/e_min.html . 2007-09-27 . 2007-06-08.
  27. Gundry,
  28. Book: Korea: a historical and cultural dictionary. Keith L.. Pratt. 1999. 9780700704637. 482. Psychology Press . 2021-02-01. 2021-06-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20210622033524/https://books.google.com/books?id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&q=tribute+korea+china&pg=PA482. live.
  29. Kwak, Tae-Hwan et al. (2003). ; excerpt, "The tributary relations between China and Korea came to an end when China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895."
  30. Seth, Michael J. (2006). ; excerpt, "China found instead that its policy of using trade and cultural exchanges and offering legitimacy and prestige to the Silla monarchy was effective in keeping Silla safely in the tributary system. Indeed, the relationship that was worked out in the late seventh and early eighth centuries can be considered the beginning of the mature tributary relationship that would characterize Sino-Korean interchange most of the time until the late nineteenth century;"
  31. Korean History Project, Unified Silla .
  32. Kwak, ; excerpt, "Korea's tributary relations with China began as early as the fifth century, were regularized during the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), and became fully institutionalized during the Yi dynasty (1392–1910)."
  33. 391 envoy missions between 1392 and 1450
  34. 435 special embassy missions between 1637 and 1881.
  35. The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644 Part 2 . 280 . The Cambridge History of China . 8 . Donald N. . Clark . 0-521-24333-5 . 1998 . Between 1392 and 1450, the Choson court dispatched 391 envoys to China: on average, seven each year. . 2020-10-18 . 2021-09-26 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085717/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&q=391+envoys&pg=PA280 . live .
  36. Book: Kang, David C. . East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute . Columbia University Press . 2010 . 978-0-231-15318-8 . 59 . thus, between 1637 and 1881, Korea sent 435 special embassies to the Qing court, or an average of almost 1.5 embassies per year. . 2020-10-18 . 2021-09-26 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085733/https://books.google.com/books?id=ydVymF_OrWEC&q=435&pg=PT75 . live .
  37. Web site: Chinese Sui Dynasty annals. https://web.archive.org/web/20060627064126/http://www.wenhuacn.com/lishi/shiji/13suishu/082.htm. dead. June 27, 2006.
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  39. Web site: Kelantan. 2012-01-11. 2012-02-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20120202160815/http://www.eguide.com.my/kelantan/. live.
  40. Web site: First Ruler of Melaka : Parameswara 1394-1414 . 2012-01-11 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130603195120/http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm01&spesifik_id=3&ttl_id=59 . 2013-06-03 . dead .
  41. Gundry,
  42. Web site: The Political Economy of Philippines- China Relations . 2007-06-08 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070621110647/http://pascn.pids.gov.ph/DiscList/d99/s99-16.pdf . 2007-06-21 . dead .
  43. Gundry,
  44. Gundry,
  45. http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org/Ket/C09/E0901.htm "Tribute and Trade"
  46. Gundry,
  47. Web site: Working Papers of the Global Economic History Network (GEHN) No. 21/06 - The Nature and Linkages of China's Tributary System under the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Giovanni Andornino. 2016-10-31 . 2017-01-10 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170110173229/http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/GEHNWP21-GA.pdf . live . London School of Economics.
  48. page 63 of the book, "MAPPING HISTORY WORLD HISTORY, by Dr. Ian Barnes.
  49. Wolters, "North-western Cambodia in the seventh century", p. 356 and pp. 374–375
  50. Book: Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia: the development of indigenous monetary systems to AD 1400. Robert S. Wicks. 1992. SEAP Publications. 0-87727-710-9. 210. 2010-06-28. 2021-09-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085630/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs1q9VEoEkoC&q=champa+tribute+linyi+raids+hue+china&pg=PA210. live.
  51. Book: The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. Edward H. Schafer. 1963. University of California Press. 0-520-05462-8. 50. 2011-01-09. 2021-09-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085630/https://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&q=karluks+lake+balkash+turkish+women+tibetan+girls&pg=PA44. live.
  52. Book: Михаил Иосифович Сладковский. https://books.google.com/books?id=bHGGAAAAIAAJ&q=Z.+N.+Mat-+veyev+cites+Chinese+sources+which+show+that+Bohai+supplied+China+with+slaves+of+both+sexes+%28including+Japanese+dancing+girls%29+captured+during+raids+on+Japan,+Korea+and+Liaodong+[138,+19,+20.+Simultaneously,+as+N.+I.+Konrad+... Тхе лонг роад: Сино-Руссиян экономик контактс фром анциент тимес то 1917]. 1981. Прогресс Публишерс. 13. 9780828521260. 2016-04-07. 2021-09-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085718/https://books.google.com/books?id=bHGGAAAAIAAJ&q=Z.+N.+Mat-+veyev+cites+Chinese+sources+which+show+that+Bohai+supplied+China+with+slaves+of+both+sexes+%28including+Japanese+dancing+girls%29+captured+during+raids+on+Japan%2C+Korea+and+Liaodong+%5B138%2C+19%2C+20%5D.+Simultaneously%2C+as+N.+I.+Konrad+.... live.
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  55. Book: The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History: to 1550. Richard Bulliet. Pamela Kyle Crossley. Daniel Headrick. Steven Hirsch. Lyman Johnson. 2008. Cengage Learning. 978-0-618-99238-6. 279. 2010-11-28. 2021-09-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085752/https://books.google.com/books?id=niqhizFDhKUC&q=champa+tribute+rice+india+yields+crop&pg=PA279. live.
  56. Lynda Noreen Shaffer, A Concrete Panoply of Intercultural Exchange: Asia in World History (1997) in Asia in Western and World History, edited by Ainslie T. Embree and Carol Gluck (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe), p. 839-840.
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  69. John K. Fairbank and Têng Ssu-yü: On the Ch'ing Tributary System, in: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (1941), p. 137-150
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  72. Book: Kang. Jae-eun. The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism. Homa & Sekey Books. 9781931907309. 179. 29 June 2016. en. 2006. 26 September 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085633/https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&q=profitable+government+trade&pg=PA179. live. "Reciprocating a tribute usually exceeded the tribute itself, which was a profitable government trade to the small nation but a big burden for China. Therefore, China requested for Joseon to send tribute only "once every three years," but in contrast, Joseon requested to send a tribute "thrice each year" or "four times per year" instead and achieved it."
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  100. Book: He. Li. Knight. Michael. Vinograd. Richard Ellis. Bartholomew. Terese Tse. Chan. Dany. Culture. Asian Art Museum--Chong-Moon Lee Center for Asian Art and. Art. Indianapolis Museum of. Museum. St Louis Art. Power and glory: court arts of China's Ming dynasty. Asian Art Museum--Chong-Moon Lee Center for Asian Art and Culture. 9780939117420. 153. 13 September 2016. en. 2008-07-22. 2021-09-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20210926085706/https://books.google.com/books?id=AA3qAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Lady+Qi%2C+who%2C+according+to+several+Ming+documents%2C+was+a+Korean%22. live.
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  107. Book: Jay A. Levenson. National Gallery of Art (U.S.). Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration. 1991. Yale University Press. 978-0-300-05167-4. 477–. 2019-01-26. 2019-12-31. https://web.archive.org/web/20191231080336/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMK-Ba0-RG4C&pg=PA477. live. Book: Bernard O'Kane. The Civilization of the Islamic World. 15 December 2012. The Rosen Publishing Group. 978-1-4488-8509-1. 207–. 26 January 2019. 24 December 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191224143622/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7HMZ-flk9kC&pg=PA207. live. Web site: Bonhams Auctioneers : A rare blue and white screen Zhengde six-character mark and of the period. https://web.archive.org/web/20160821220251/http://www.bonhams.com/auctions/20024/lot/37/ . 2016-08-21. bonhams.com. Oriental Blue and White, London, 1970, p.29. Web site: FINE2055 Crossing Cultures: China and the Outside World . Dr. Yeewan Koon . www.fa.hku.hk . 12 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120321075936/http://www.fa.hku.hk/home/JenChianEssay.pdf . 21 March 2012 . dead. Book: Britannica Educational Publishing. The Culture of China. 2010. Britannica Educational Publishing. 978-1-61530-183-6. 176–. 2019-01-26. 2019-12-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20191207195516/https://books.google.com/books?id=o0pS_hjfKs8C&pg=PA176. live. Book: Kathleen Kuiper. The Culture of China. 2010. The Rosen Publishing Group . 978-1-61530-140-9 . 176– . 2019-01-26 . 2019-12-24 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191224194718/https://books.google.com/books?id=ePytAJX0yZcC&pg=PA176. live. Book: Britannica Educational Publishing. The Culture of China. 1 April 2010. Britannica Educational Publishing. 978-1-61530-183-6. 176–. 26 January 2019. 30 December 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191230204617/https://books.google.com/books?id=jcecAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176. live. Book: Suzanne G. Valenstein. A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics. 1988. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 978-0-8109-1170-3. 187–. 2019-01-26. 2019-12-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20191227145223/https://books.google.com/books?id=wnVwuJvo4YgC&pg=PA187. live.
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  119. Book: Korea . registration . 22 . Martin. Robinson. Andrew . Bender . Rob . Whyte . Lonely Planet . 2004 . 1-74059-449-5 . The tribute taken to Beijing three or four times a year during most of the Joseon period provides an interesting insight into Korean products at this time..
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  131. Web site: The annals of the Joseon princesses. - The Gachon Herald. www.gachonherald.com. 2016-05-02. 2021-07-23. https://web.archive.org/web/20210723072600/http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32. live.
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