List of multiple discoveries explained

Historians and sociologists have remarked the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other.[1] "Sometimes", writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before."[2]

Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, described by A. Rupert Hall;[3] the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to such famous historic instances. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science.[4]

Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together.[5]

A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus.[6] However, discoveries and inventions are inextricably related, in that discoveries lead to inventions, and inventions facilitate discoveries; and since the same phenomenon of multiplicity occurs in relation to both discoveries and inventions, this article lists both multiple discoveries and multiple inventions.

3rd century BCE

13th century CE

14th century

16th century

17th century

18th century

19th century

20th century

Notes and References

  1. Merton . Robert K. . Resistance to the Systematic Study of Multiple Discoveries in Science . European Journal of Sociology . December 1963 . 4 . 2 . 237–282 . 10.1017/S0003975600000801 . 23998345 . 145650007. Reprinted in: Book: Merton, Robert K. . On Social Structure and Science . 15 September 1996 . University of Chicago Press . 978-0-226-52070-4 . 305–.
  2. Book: Merton, Robert K. . The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations . 1973 . University of Chicago Press . 978-0-226-52092-6 . 371.
  3. A. Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1980.
  4. [Robert K. Merton]
  5. [Robert K. Merton]
  6. [Bolesław Prus]
  7. [Owen Gingerich]
  8. [Dava Sobel]
  9. "Copernicus seems to have drawn up some notes [on the displacement of good coin from circulation by debased coin] while he was at Olsztyn in 1519. He made them the basis of a report on the matter, written in German, which he presented to the Prussian Diet held in 1522 at Grudziądz .... He later drew up a revised and enlarged version of his little treatise, this time in Latin, and setting forth a general theory of money, for presentation to the Diet of 1528." Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, 1951, p. 91.
  10. Web site: Αριστοφάνης . Βάτραχοι . Βικιθήκη . 19 April 2013.
  11. Cappi . Alberto . 1994 . Edgar Allan Poe's Physical Cosmology . Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society . 35 . 177–192 . 1994QJRAS..35..177C.
  12. [Marilynne Robinson]
  13. Web site: Harro . Schmeling . Geodynamik . 2004 . University of Frankfurt . de.
  14. Book: Coxworthy . Franklin . Electrical Condition; Or, How and where Our Earth was Created . 1924 . J. S. Phillips . 6 December 2014.
  15. ,
  16. Frank . Bursley Taylor . 3 June 1910 . Bearing of the Tertiary mountain belt on the origin of the earth's plan . Bulletin of the Geological Society of America . 21 . 1 . 179–226. 10.1130/GSAB-21-179 . 1910GSAB...21..179T .
  17. Eduard Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth), vol. 1 (Leipzig, (Germany): G. Freytag, 1885), page 768. From p. 768: "Wir nennen es Gondwána-Land, nach der gemeinsamen alten Gondwána-Flora, … " (We name it Gondwána-Land, after the common ancient flora of Gondwána ...)
  18. Edward . Suess . March 1893 . Are ocean depths permanent? . Google Books . Natural Science: A Monthly Review of Scientific Progress . 2 . 180–187 . This ocean we designate by the name 'Tethys', after the sister and consort of Oceanus. The latest successor of the Tethyan Sea is the present Mediterranean..
  19. Perry . John . 1895 . On the age of the earth . . 51 . Hathi Trust . 224–227, 341–342, 582–585.
  20. [Roger Penrose]
  21. [Thomas S. Kuhn]
  22. Vladimir D. Shiltsev, "Nov. 19, 1771: Birth of Mikhail Lomonosov, Russia's first modern scientist", APS [American Physical Society] News, November 2011 (vol. 20, no. 10) https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201111/physicshistory.cfm.
  23. Anirudh, "10 Major Contributions of Antoine Lavoisier", 17 October 2017 https://learnodo-newtonic.com/antoine-lavoisier-contributions.
  24. Web site: MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS, ROSICRUCIAN, and FATHER OF STUDIES OF OXYGEN.
  25. http://www.astronomyedinburgh.org/publications/journals/39/blackholes.html Alan Ellis, "Black HolesPart 1History", Astronomical Society of Edinburgh, Journal 39, 1999
  26. [Stephen Hawking]
  27. "Hong's essential insight is the same as Malthus's". Wm Theodore de Bary, Sources of East Asian Tradition, vol. 2: The Modern Period, New York, Columbia University Press, 2008, p. 85.
  28. [Roger Penrose]
  29. [Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]
  30. Heideman, M. T., D. H. Johnson, and C. S. Burrus, "Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol. 34, no. 3 (1985), pp. 265–277.
  31. Halliday et al., Physics, vol. 2, 2002, p. 775.
  32. [Priyamvada Natarajan]
  33. "Aug. 18, 1868: Helium Discovered During Total Solar Eclipse", https://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2009/08/dayintech_0818/
  34. [Bolesław Prus]
  35. [Christopher Kasparek]
  36. [Alec Wilkinson|Wilkinson, Alec]
  37. Maury Klein, Chapter 9: "The Cowbird, The Plugger, and the Dreamer", The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2010.
  38. Kenneth E. Hendrickson III, The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, p. 564.
  39. [Isaac Asimov]
  40. N.E. Collinge, The Laws of Indo-European, pp. 149–52.
  41. Book: Collinge, N. E. . The Laws of Indo-European . 1 January 1985 . John Benjamins Publishing . 978-9027235305.
  42. Skalski . J. H. . Kuch . J. . Polish thread in the history of circulatory physiology . Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology . 57 . Suppl 1 . 5–41 . April 2006 . 16766800 .
  43. Yamashima . T. . Jokichi Takamine (1854–1922), the samurai chemist, and his work on adrenalin . Journal of Medical Biography . 11 . 2 . 95–102 . May 2003 . 12717538 . 10.1177/096777200301100211 . 32540165.
  44. Bennett . M. R. . One hundred years of adrenaline: the discovery of autoreceptors . Clinical Autonomic Research . 9 . 3 . 145–59 . June 1999 . 10454061 . 10.1007/BF02281628 . 20999106.
  45. "Had Becquerel ... not [in 1896] presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity, and even a Nobel Prize, would have gone to Silvanus Thompson." Robert William Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974,, pp. 64–65.
  46. "Marie Curie was ... beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium. Unknown to her, a German, Gerhard Carl Schmidt, had published his finding in Berlin two months earlier." Robert William Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974,, p. 65.
  47. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie, New York, W.W. Norton, 2005,, p. 166.
  48. von Smoluchowski . M. . Zur kinetischen Theorie der Brownschen Molekularbewegung und der Suspensionen . Annalen der Physik . 326 . 14 . 756–780 . 1906 . de . 10.1002/andp.19063261405 . 1906AnP...326..756V .
  49. LXXV. A dynamical theory of diffusion for non-electrolytes and the molecular mass of albumin . Philosophical Magazine . Series 6 . William . Sutherland . 1 June 1905 . 9 . 54 . 781–785 . 10.1080/14786440509463331 .
  50. Web site: "Stokes-Einstein-Sutherland equation", P. Hänggi.
  51. Einstein . A. . Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen . Annalen der Physik . 322 . 8 . 549–560 . 1905 . de . 10.1002/andp.19053220806 . 1905AnP...322..549E . free.
  52. Brush . Stephen G. . June 1978 . Nettie M. Stevens and the Discovery of Sex Determination by Chromosomes . 230427 . Isis . 69 . 2 . 162–172 . 10.1086/352001 . 389882 . 1919033.
  53. Encyclopedia: Photochemical equivalence law . . 7 November 2009.
  54. [Władysław Kozaczuk]
  55. [Brian Greene]
  56. Web site: Big bang theory is introduced – 1927 . A Science Odyssey . WGBH . 31 July 2014.
  57. Rombeck . Terry . 22 January 2005 . Poe's little-known science book reprinted . Lawrence Journal-World & News .
  58. [Marilynne Robinson|Robinson, Marilynne]
  59. M.J. O'Dowd, E.E. Philipp, The History of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, London, Parthenon Publishing Group, 1994, p. 547.
  60. Ooishi, W. (1926) Raporto de la Aerologia Observatorio de Tateno (in Esperanto). Aerological Observatory Report 1, Central Meteorological Observatory, Japan, 213 pages.
  61. Lewis . John M. . 2003 . Oishi's Observation: Viewed in the Context of Jet Stream Discovery . Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . 84 . 3 . 357–369 . 10.1175/BAMS-84-3-357 . 2003BAMS...84..357L . free.
  62. Acepilots.com. Wiley Post. Retrieved on 8 May 2008.
  63. Web site: Weather Basics – Jet Streams . 8 May 2009 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060829012128/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/basics_jetstreams.shtml . 29 August 2006.
  64. Web site: When the jet stream was the wind of war . 9 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160129055603/http://www.statesman.com/news/news/opinion/when-the-jet-stream-was-the-wind-of-war/nRxPD/ . 29 January 2016 . dead.
  65. Eggleton . Philip . Eggleton . Grace Palmer . 1927 . The inorganic phosphate and a labile form of organic phosphate in the gastrocnemius of the frog . Biochemical Journal . 21 . 1 . 190–195 . 16743804 . 1251888 . 10.1042/bj0210190.
  66. Fiske . Cyrus H. . Subbarow . Yellapragada . 1927 . The nature of the 'inorganic phosphate' in voluntary muscle . Science . 65 . 1686 . 401–403 . 10.1126/science.65.1686.401 . 17807679 . 1927Sci....65..401F.
  67. Book: Frank, Close . Antimatter . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-955016-6 . 50–52 . 22 January 2009.
  68. [Stephen Hawking]
  69. Mirsky . A. E. . Pauling . Linus . 1936 . On the structure of native, denatured, and coagulated proteins . PNAS . 22 . 7 . 439–447 . 10.1073/pnas.22.7.439 . 16577722 . 1936PNAS...22..439M . 1076802 . free.
  70. Wu . Hsien . 1931 . Studies on Denaturation of Proteins XIII. A Theory of Denaturation (reprint) . Chinese Journal of Physiology . 46 . 6–26 . 10.1016/S0065-3233(08)60330-7 . Advances in Protein Chemistry . 9780120342464.
  71. Book: Edsall . John . Advances in Protein Chemistry Volume 46 . 1995 . Hsien Wu and the First Theory of Protein Denaturation (1931) . 10.1016/S0065-3233(08)60329-0 . 46 . 1–5 . 978-0-12-034246-4.
  72. See the "bibliographic notes" at the end of chapter 7 in Hopcroft & Ullman, Introduction to Automata, Languages, and Computation, Addison-Wesley, 1979.
  73. .
  74. [Jane Smiley]
  75. Jack Murtagh, "This Unexpected Pattern of Numbers Is Everywhere: A curious mathematical phenomenon called Benford's law governs the numbers all around us", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 5 (December 2023), pp. 82–83.
  76. [Richard Rhodes]
  77. [Irwin Abrams]
  78. Troyer . James . In the beginning: the multiple discovery of the first hormone herbicides . Weed Science . 2001 . 49 . 2 . 290–297 . 10.1614/0043-1745(2001)049[0290:ITBTMD]2.0.CO;2 . 85637273.
  79. Web site: Twists and Turns in the Development of the Transistor . Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. . 8 July 2015 . 8 January 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150108082709/http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/May/history.asp . dead.
  80. Web site: 1948 – The European Transistor Invention . Computer History Museum .
  81. Web site: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956 . NobelPrize.org.
  82. The analysis of sociograms using matrix algebra . Festinger . Leon . Human Relations . 1949 . 2 . 2 . 153–158 . 10.1177/001872674900200205 . 143609308.
  83. A method of matrix analysis of group structure . 1949 . 10.1007/BF02289146 . Luce . R. Duncan . Perry . Albert D. . Psychometrika . 14 . 2 . 95–116 . 18152948 . 16186758 . 10.1007/BF02289146 . free.
  84. Web site: Background and Theory Page of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Facility . Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre – University of Southern Wales Sydney . 9 December 2011 . 9 February 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140127183200/http://www.nmr.unsw.edu.au/usercorner/nmrhistory.htm . 27 January 2014.
  85. http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml The Chip that Jack Built
  86. Christophe Lécuyer, Making Silicon Valley: Innovation and the Growth of High Tech, 1930–1970, MIT Press, 2006,, p. 129.
  87. Nobel Web AB, 10 October 2000 The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000, retrieved 29 May 2008.
  88. Golub . G. . Uhlig . F. . The QR algorithm: 50 years later its genesis by John Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya and subsequent developments . IMA Journal of Numerical Analysis . 8 June 2009 . 29 . 3 . 467–485 . 10.1093/imanum/drp012 . 119892206 . 0272-4979.
  89. Dongarra . J. . Sullivan . F. . Guest Editors Introduction: The Top 10 Algorithms . Computing in Science & Engineering . January 2000 . 2 . 1 . 22–23 . 10.1109/MCISE.2000.814652 . 2000CSE.....2a..22D.
  90. See Chapter 1.6 in the first edition of Li & Vitanyi, An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, who cite Chaitin (1975): "this definition [of Kolmogorov complexity] was independently proposed about 1965 by A.N. Kolmogorov and me ... Both Kolmogorov and I were then unaware of related proposals made in 1960 by Ray Solomonoff".
  91. Ahvenniemi . Esko . Akbashev . Andrew R. . Ali . Saima . Bechelany . Mikhael . Berdova . Maria . Boyadjiev . Stefan . Cameron . David C. . Chen . Rong . Chubarov . Mikhail . 16 December 2016 . Review Article: Recommended reading list of early publications on atomic layer deposition—Outcome of the "Virtual Project on the History of ALD" . Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films . 35 . 1 . 010801 . 10.1116/1.4971389 . 0734-2101 . free . 2017JVSTA..35a0801A.
  92. Puurunen . Riikka L. . 1 December 2014 . A Short History of Atomic Layer Deposition: Tuomo Suntola's Atomic Layer Epitaxy . Chemical Vapor Deposition . 20 . 10–11–12 . 332–344 . 10.1002/cvde.201402012 . 1521-3862 . free.
  93. Malygin . Anatolii A. . Drozd . Victor E. . Malkov . Anatolii A. . Smirnov . Vladimir M. . 1 December 2015 . From V. B. Aleskovskii's "Framework" Hypothesis to the Method of Molecular Layering/Atomic Layer Deposition . Chemical Vapor Deposition . 21 . 10–11–12 . 216–240 . 10.1002/cvde.201502013 . 1521-3862.
  94. Heirtzler . James R. . Xavier . Le Pichon . J. Gregory . Baron . 1966 . Magnetic anomalies over the Reykjanes Ridge . Deep-Sea Research . 13 . 3 . 427–32 . 10.1016/0011-7471(66)91078-3 . CITEREFHeirzlerLe PichonBaron1966 . 1966DSRA...13..427H.
  95. Citations in article "Conductive polymers".
  96. Sean Carrol, The Particle at the End of the Universe: The Hunt for the Higgs and the Discovery of a New World, Dutton, 2012, p.228. http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/15744013-the-particle-at-the-end-of-the-universe
  97. A. A. . Migdal . Alexander Migdal . A. M. . Polyakov . Alexander Markovich Polyakov . Spontaneous Breakdown of Strong Interaction Symmetry and Absence of Massless Particles . https://web.archive.org/web/20131203014220/http://www.jetp.ac.ru/cgi-bin/dn/e_024_01_0091.pdf . 3 December 2013 . JETP . 51 . 135 . July 1966. (English translation: Soviet Physics JETP, vol. 24, p. 1, January 1967.)
  98. Navarro . Gonzalo . 10.1145/375360.375365 . A guided tour to approximate string matching . ACM Computing Surveys . 33 . 1 . 31–88 . 2001 . 10.1.1.452.6317 . 207551224.
  99. Joshua Rothman, "The Rules of the Game: How does science really work?" (review of Michael Strevens, The Knowledge Machine: How Irrationality Created Modern Science, Liveright), The New Yorker, 5 October 2020, pp. 67–71. (p. 68.)
  100. See Garey & Johnson, Computers and intractability, p. 119.
    Cf. also the survey article by Trakhtenbrot (see "External Links").
    Levin emigrated to the U.S. in 1978.
  101. D. J. Gross, F. Wilczek, Ultraviolet behavior of non-abeilan gauge theoreies, Physical Review Letters 30 (1973) 1343–1346;H. D. Politzer, Reliable perturbative results for strong interactions, Physical Review Letters 30 (1973) 1346–1349
  102. Endo . Akira . Kuroda . M. . Tsujita . Y. . 1976 . ML-236A, ML-236B, and ML-236C, new inhibitors of cholesterogenesis produced by Penicillium citrinium . The Journal of Antibiotics . 29 . 12 . 1346–8 . 10.7164/antibiotics.29.1346 . 1010803 . free.
  103. Brown . Alian G. . Smale . Terry C. . King . Trevor J. . Hasenkamp . Rainer . Thompson . Ronald H. . 1976 . Crystal and Molecular Structure of Compactin, a New Antifungal Metabolite from Penicillium brevicompactum . J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. . 1 . 11 . 1165–1170 . 10.1039/P19760001165 . 945291.
  104. Alvarez, L W; Alvarez, W; Asaro, F; Michel, H V (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction" (PDF). Science. 208 (4448): 1095–1108. Bibcode:1980Sci...208.1095A. doi:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095. . S2CID 16017767.
  105. Peter Brannen, "The Worst Times on Earth: Mass extinctions send us a warning about the future of life on this planet", Scientific American, vol. 323, no. 3 (September 2020), pp. 74–81. (The Smit–Hertogen independent discovery is referenced on p. 80.)
  106. Gallo . R. C. . Sarin . P. S. . Gelmann . E. P. . Robert-Guroff . M. . Richardson . E. . Kalyanaraman . V. S. . Mann . D. . Sidhu . G. D. . Stahl . R. E. . Zolla-Pazner . S. . Leibowitch . J. . Popovic . M. . Isolation of human T-cell leukemia virus in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) . . 220 . 4599 . 865–867 . 1983 . 6601823 . 10.1126/science.6601823 . 1983Sci...220..865G.
  107. Barré-Sinoussi . F. . Chermann . J. C. . Rey . F. . Nugeyre . M. T. . Chamaret . S. . Gruest . J. . Dauguet . C. . Axler-Blin . C. . Vézinet-Brun . F. . Rouzioux . C. . Rozenbaum . W. . Montagnier . L. . Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) . . 220 . 4599 . 868–871 . 1983 . 6189183 . 10.1126/science.6189183 . 1983Sci...220..868B . 390173.
  108. Web site: The 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine - Press Release . www.nobelprize.org . 28 January 2018.
  109. Levy . J. A. . etal . 1984 . Isolation of lymphocytopathic retroviruses from San Francisco patients with AIDS . Science . 225 . 4664 . 840–842 . 10.1126/science.6206563 . 6206563 . 1984Sci...225..840L.
  110. Levy . J. A. . Kaminsky . L. S. . Morrow . W. J. . Steimer . K. . Luciw . P. . Dina . D. . Hoxie . J. . Oshiro . L. . 1985 . Infection by the retrovirus associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome . Annals of Internal Medicine . 103 . 5 . 694–699 . 10.7326/0003-4819-103-5-694 . 2996401.
  111. [Tim Folger]
  112. [David H. Levy]
  113. See EATCS on the Gödel Prize 1995 .
  114. [Christopher Kasparek]
  115. Van Os et al, NRC Handelsblad, 2015, laten we de diagnose schizofrenie vergeten http://www.nrc.nl/handelsblad/2015/03/07/laten-we-de-diagnose-schizofrenie-vergeten-1472619
  116. Os. Jim van. 2016-02-02. "Schizophrenia" does not exist. BMJ. en. 352. i375. 10.1136/bmj.i375. 1756-1833. 26837945. 116098585 . subscription.
  117. Imbens . Guido W. . Angrist . Joshua D. . 1994 . Identification and Estimation of Local Average Treatment Effects . Econometrica . 62 . 2 . 467–475 . 10.2307/2951620 . 2951620 . 0012-9682.
  118. Baker . Stuart G. . Lindeman . Karen S. . 1994-11-15 . The paired availability design: A proposal for evaluating epidural analgesia during labor . Statistics in Medicine . en . 13 . 21 . 2269–2278 . 10.1002/sim.4780132108 . 7846425 . 0277-6715.
  119. Baker . Stuart G. . Lindeman . Karen S. . 2024-04-02 . Multiple Discoveries in Causal Inference: LATE for the Party . CHANCE . en . 37 . 2 . 21–25 . 10.1080/09332480.2024.2348956 . 38957370 . 11218811 . 0933-2480.
  120. 1992Ap&SS.191..107P . 10.1007/BF00644200 . Inflation and compactification from Galaxy redshifts? . 1992 . Paál . G. . Horváth . I. . Lukács . B. . Astrophysics and Space Science . 191 . 1 . 107–124 . 116951785.
  121. [Richard Panek]
  122. In regard to his "cosmological constant", "Einstein ... blundered twice: by introducing the cosmological constant for the wrong reason [to maintain a [[static universe]], before the advent of the Big Bang theory] and again by throwing it out instead of exploring its implications [including an [[accelerating universe]]]." Lawrence M. Krauss, "What Einstein Got Wrong: Cosmology", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), p. 55.
  123. News: Kajita and McDonald win Nobel physics prize for work on neutrinos . . 6 October 2015 . 6 October 2015 . Randerson . James . Ian . Sample.
  124. [Jerome Groopman]
  125. Large gaps between consecutive prime numbers . Annals of Mathematics . 183 . 3 . 935–974 . Kevin . Ford . Ben . Green . Sergei . Konyagin . Terence . Tao . 2016 . 1408.4505 . 10.4007/annals.2016.183.3.4 . 16336889.
  126. Large gaps between primes . James . Maynard . 21 August 2014 . math.NT . 1408.5110.
  127. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2020/press-release/
  128. Web site: With prestigious prize, an overshadowed CRISPR researcher wins the spotlight . Cohen . J. . 4 June 2018 . . 2 May 2020.
  129. Web site: Lithuanian scientists not awarded Nobel prize despite discovering same technology . LRT.lt . 8 October 2020.
  130. "Surprise! It's a Nobel Prize", UCSF Magazine, Winter 2022, pp. 28–29.
  131. Israel Rosenfield and [dward Ziff, "[[Epigenetics]]: The Evolution Revolution", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 10 (7 June 2018), pp. 36,38.

    21st century

    See also

    Bibliography

    • Book: Armitage, Angus . The World of Copernicus . Mentor Books . 1951 . New York . Reference-Armitage-1951.
    • Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, second revised edition, New York, Doubleday, 1982.
    • Cappi . Alberto . 1994 . Edgar Allan Poe's Physical Cosmology . Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society . 35 . 177–192 . 1994QJRAS..35..177C.
    • Book: Collinge, N. E. . The Laws of Indo-European . registration . . John Benjamins . 1985 . 978-0-915027-75-0 . (U.S.), (Europe).
    • Tim Folger, "The Quantum Hack: Quantum computers will render today's cryptographic methods obsolete. What happens then?" Scientific American, vol. 314, no. 2 (February 2016), pp. 48–55.
    • Book: Garey . Michael R. . Michael R. Garey . Johnson . David S. . David S. Johnson . 1979 . Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness . W. H. Freeman . 978-0-7167-1045-5 . registration .
    • Owen Gingerich, "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol. 16, no. 1 (February 1985), pp. 37–42. 1985JHA....16...37G Page 37
    • Brian Greene, "Why He [Albert Einstein] Matters: The fruits of one mind shaped civilization more than seems possible", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), pp. 34–37.
    • A. Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1980.
    • Lawrence M. Krauss, "What Einstein Got Wrong: Cosmology (Everyone makes mistakes. But those of the legendary physicist are particularly illuminating)", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), pp. 50–55.
    • David Lamb, Multiple Discovery: The Pattern of Scientific Progress, Amersham, Avebury Press, 1984.
    • David H. Levy, "My Life as a Comet Hunter: The need to pass a French test, of all things, spurred half a century of cosmic sleuthing", Scientific American, vol. 314, no. 2 (February 2016), pp. 70–71.
    • Book: Ming . Li . Paul . Vitanyi . An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, 1st ed . . Springer-Verlag . 1993 . 978-0-387-94053-3 . (U.S.), (Europe) .
    • Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, University of Chicago Press, 1973.
    • Robert K. Merton, On Social Structure and Science, edited and with an introduction by Piotr Sztompka, University of Chicago Press, 1996.
    • Jack Murtagh, "This Unexpected Pattern of Numbers Is Everywhere: A curious mathematical phenomenon called Benford's law governs the numbers all around us", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 5 (December 2023), pp. 82–83.
    • Book: Ortelius, Abraham . 1596 . 1570 . Thesaurus Geographicus . Antwerp . Plantin . la . 3rd . 214324616. (First edition published 1570, 1587 edition online)
    • Richard Panek, "The Cosmic Surprise: Scientists discovered dark energy 25 years ago. They're still trying to figure out what it is", Scientific American, vol. 329, no.5 (December 2023), pp. 62–71.
    • Robert William Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974, .
    • Marilynne Robinson, "On Edgar Allan Poe", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 2 (5 February 2015), pp. 4, 6.
    • Rombeck . Terry . 22 January 2005 . Poe's little-known science book reprinted . Lawrence Journal-World & News .
    • Joshua Rothman, "The Rules of the Game: How does science really work?" (review of Michael Strevens, The Knowledge Machine: How Irrationality Created Modern Science, Liveright), The New Yorker, 5 October 2020, pp. 67–71.
    • Book: Snider-Pellegrini, Antonio . 1858 . La Création et ses mystères dévoilés . Frank and Dentu . Paris . .
    • Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States, New York, Free Press, 1977.

    External links