List of most massive stars explained

This is a list of the most massive stars that have been discovered, in solar mass units .

Uncertainties and caveats

Most of the masses listed below are contested and, being the subject of current research, remain under review and subject to constant revision of their masses and other characteristics. Indeed, many of the masses listed in the table below are inferred from theory, using difficult measurements of the stars' temperatures and absolute brightnesses. All the masses listed below are uncertain: Both the theory and the measurements are pushing the limits of current knowledge and technology. Both theories and measurements could be incorrect.

Complications with distance and obscuring clouds

Since massive stars are rare, astronomers must look very far from Earth to find them. All the listed stars are many thousands of light years away, which makes measurements difficult. In addition to being far away, many stars of such extreme mass are surrounded by clouds of outflowing gas created by extremely powerful stellar winds; the surrounding gas interferes with the already difficult-to-obtain measurements of stellar temperatures and brightnesses, which greatly complicates the issue of estimating internal chemical compositions and structures.This obstruction leads to difficulties in determining the parameters needed to calculate the star's mass.

Both the obscuring clouds and the great distances also make it difficult to judge whether the star is just a single supermassive object or, instead, a multiple star system. A number of the "stars" listed below may actually be two or more companions orbiting too closely for our telescopes to distinguish, each star possibly being massive in itself but not necessarily "supermassive" to either be on this list, or near the top of it.And certainly other combinations are possible – for example a supermassive star with one or more smaller companions or more than one giant star – but without being able to clearly see inside the surrounding cloud, it is difficult to know what kind of object is actually generating the bright point of light seen from the Earth.

More globally, statistics on stellar populations seem to indicate that the upper mass limit is in the 100–200 solar mass range,^[1] so any mass estimate above this range is suspect.

Rare reliable estimates

Eclipsing binary stars are the only stars whose masses are estimated with some confidence. However note that almost all of the masses listed in the table below were inferred by indirect methods; only a few of the masses in the table were determined using eclipsing systems.

Amongst the most reliable listed masses are those for the eclipsing binaries NGC 3603-A1, WR 21a, and WR 20a. Masses for all three were obtained from orbital measurements. This involves measuring their radial velocities and also their light curves. The radial velocities only yield minimum values for the masses, depending on inclination, but light curves of eclipsing binaries provide the missing information: inclination of the orbit to our line of sight.

Relevance of stellar evolution

Some stars may once have been more massive than they are today. It is likely that many large stars have suffered significant mass loss (perhaps as much as several tens of solar masses). This mass may have been expelled by superwinds: high velocity winds that are driven by the hot photosphere into interstellar space. The process forms an enlarged extended envelope around the star that interacts with the nearby interstellar medium and infuses the adjacent volume of space with elements heavier than hydrogen or helium.

There are also – or rather were – stars that might have appeared on the list but no longer exist as stars, or are supernova impostors; today we see only their debris. The masses of the precursor stars that fueled these destructive events can be estimated from the type of explosion and the energy released, but those masses are not listed here.

This list only concerns "living" stars – those which are still seen by Earth-based observers existing as active stars: Still engaged in interior nuclear fusion that generates heat and light. That is, the light now arriving at the Earth as images of the stars listed still shows them to internally generate new energy as of the time (in the distant past) that light now being received was emitted. The list specifically excludes both white dwarfs – former stars that are now seen to be "dead" but radiating residual heat – and black holes – fragmentary remains of exploded stars which have gravitationally collapsed, even though accretion disks surrounding those black holes might generate heat or light exterior to the star's remains (now inside the black hole), radiated by infalling matter (see § Black holes below).

Mass limits

There are two related theoretical limits on how massive a star can possibly be: The accretion mass limit and the Eddington mass limit.

The accretion limit is related to star formation: After about have accreted in a protostar, the combined mass should have become hot enough for its heat to drive away any further incoming matter. In effect, the protostar reaches a point where it evaporates away material already collected as fast as it collects new material.

The Eddington limit is based on light pressure from the core of an already-formed star: As mass increases past the intensity of light radiated from a Population I star's core will become sufficient for the light-pressure pushing outward to exceed the gravitational force pulling inward, and the surface material of the star will be free to float away into space. Since their different compositions make them more transparent, Population II and Population III stars have higher and much higher mass limits, respectively.

Accretion limits

Astronomers have long hypothesized that as a protostar grows to a size beyond something drastic must happen.^[2] Although the limit can be stretched for very early Population III stars, and although the exact value is uncertain, if any stars still exist above they would challenge current theories of stellar evolution.

Studying the Arches Cluster, which is currently the densest known cluster of stars in our galaxy, astronomers have confirmed that no stars in that cluster exceed about

Rare ultramassive stars that exceed this limit – for example in the R136 star cluster – might be explained by the following proposal: Some of the pairs of massive stars in close orbit in young, unstable multiple-star systems must, on rare occasions, collide and merge when certain unusual circumstances hold that make a collision possible.^[3]

Eddington mass limit

See main article: Eddington luminosity. Eddington's limit on stellar mass arises because of light-pressure: For a sufficiently massive star the outward pressure of radiant energy generated by nuclear fusion in the star's core exceeds the inward pull of its own gravity. The lowest mass for which this effect is active is the Eddington limit.

Stars of greater mass have a higher rate of core energy generation, and heavier stars' luminosities increase far out of proportion to the increase in their masses. The Eddington limit is the point beyond which a star ought to push itself apart, or at least shed enough mass to reduce its internal energy generation to a lower, maintainable rate. The actual limit-point mass depends on how opaque the gas in the star is, and metal-rich Population I stars have lower mass limits than metal-poor Population II stars. Before their demise, the hypothetical metal-free Population III stars would have had the highest allowed mass, somewhere around 300 .

In theory, a more massive star could not hold itself together because of the mass loss resulting from the outflow of stellar material. In practice the theoretical Eddington Limit must be modified for high luminosity stars and the empirical Humphreys–Davidson limit is used instead.^[4]

List of the most massive known stars

The following two lists show a few of the known stars, including the stars in open cluster, OB association and H II region. Despite their high luminosity, many of them are nevertheless too distant to be observed with the naked eye. Stars that are at least sometimes visible to the unaided eye have their apparent magnitude (6.5 or brighter) highlighted in blue.

The first list gives stars that are estimated to be 60  or larger; the majority of which are shown. The second list includes some notable stars which are below 60  for the purpose of comparison. The method used to determine each star's mass is included to give an idea of the data's uncertainty; note that the mass of binary stars can be determined far more accurately. The masses listed below are the stars' current (evolved) mass, not their initial (formation) mass.

Stars with 60  or greater

Star name	Location	Mass		Spectral type		Eff. temp.	method	Link	Ref.
BAT99-98		226	165,000	WN6	13.37	45,000			^[5] ^[6]
R136a1			163,000	WN5h	12.23	46,000			^[7] ^[8]
Melnick 42		189	163,000	O2If*	12.78	47,300			^[9]
VFTS 1022		178	164,000	O3.5If*/WN7	13.47	42,200
Westerhout 51-57		160	20,000	O4V	16.66	42,700			^[10]
R136a3		155	163,000	WN5h	12.97	50,000
VFTS 682		153	164,000	WN5h	16.08	52,200			^[11]
HD 15558 A		≥	24,400	O5.5III(f)	7.87	39,500			^[12] ^[13]
R136a2		151	163,000	WN5h	12.34	50,000
Westerhout 51-3			20,000	O3-8V	17.79	39,800
Melnick 34 A			163,000	WN5h	13.09	53,000			^[14]
VFTS 482		145	164,000	O3If*/WN6-A	12.95	42,200
R136c		142	163,000	WN5h	13.43	51,000			^[15]
VFTS 1021		141	164,000	O4 If+	13.35	39,800
LH 10-3209 A		140	160,000	O3III(f*)	11.859	42,500			^[16] ^[17]
Melnick 34 B			163,000	WN5h	13.09	53,000
Westerhout 51d		135	20,000		15.11	42,700
VFTS 545		133	164,000	O2If*/WN5	13.32	47,300
HD 97950 B		132	24,800	WN6h	11.33	42,000			^[18] ^[19]
HD 269810		130	163,000	O2III(f*)	12.22	52,500			^[20] ^[21]
R136a7		127	163,000	O3III(f*)	13.97	54,000			^[22]
WR 42e		123	25,000	O3If*/WN6	14.53	43,000	Ejection		^[23]
VFTS 506		122	164,000	ON2V((n))((f*))	13.31	47,300
HD 97950 A1a		120	24,800	WN6h	11.18	42,000
LSS 4067		120	11,000	O4.5Ifpe	11.44	40,000			^[24] ^[25]
WR 93		120	5,900	WC7	10.68	71,000
Sk -69° 212		119	160,000	O6If	12.416	45,400			^[26]
Sk -69° 249 A		119	160,000	O7If	12.02	38,900			^[27]
ST5-31		119	160,000	O2-3(n)fp	12.273	50,700			^[28]
R136a5		116	157,000	O2I(n)f*	13.71	48,000
MSP 183		115	20,000	O3V(f)	13.878	46,300			^[29] ^[30]
WR 24		114	14,000	WN6ha-w	6.48	50,100			^[31] ^[32]
HD 97950 C1		113	24,800	WN6h	11.89	44,000			^[33]
Arches-F9		111.3	25,000	WN8-9h	16.1	36,600			^[34] ^[35]
Cygnus OB2 #12 A		110	5,200	B3–4 Ia+	11.702	13,700			^[36] ^[37]
HD 93129 Aa		110	7,500	O2If	6.9	42,500			^[38]
HSH95-36		110	163,000	O2 If*	14.41	49,500
R146		109	164,000	WN4	13.11	63,000
R136a4		108	157,000	O3 V((f*))(n)	13.41	50,000
VFTS 621		107	164,000	O2V((f*))z	15.39	54,000
R136a6		105	157,000	O2I(n)f*p	13.35	52,000
Westerhout 49-3		105	36,200	O3-O7V	16.689	40,700
WR 21a A		103.6	26,100	O3/WN5ha	12.661	45,000			^[39]
R99		103	164,000	Ofpe/WN9	11.52	28,000
Arches-F6		101	25,000	WN8-9h	15.75	33,900
Sk -65° 47		101	160,000	O4If	12.466	47,800
Arches-F1		100.9	25,000	WN8-9h	16.3	33,200
Peony Star		100	26,000	Ofpe/WN9	12.978	25,100			^[40]
VFTS 457		100	164,000	O3.5If*/WN7	13.74	39,800
η Carinae A		100	7,500	LBV	4.3	9,400–35,200			^[41] ^[42]
Mercer 30-1 A		99	40,000		10.33	32,200			^[43] ^[44]
Sk -68° 137		99	160,000		13.346	50,000
WR 25 A		98	6,500	O2.5If*	8.8	50,100
BI 253		97.6	164,000	O2V	13.76	54,000			^[45]
R136a8		96	157,000	O2–3V^[46]	14.42	49,500
HD 38282 B		95	163,000		11.11	47,000			^[47]
HM 1-6		95	11,000		11.64	44,700			^[48]
NGC 3603-42		95	25,000		12.86	50,000
R139 A		95	163,000		11.94	35,000
BAT99-6		94	165,000		11.95	56,000
Sk -66° 172		94	160,000		13.1	46,300			^[49]
ST2-22		94	160,000		14.3	51,300			^[50]
VFTS 259		94	164,000		13.65	37,600
VFTS 562		94	164,000		13.66	42,200
VFTS 512		93	164,000		14.28	47,300
		92	24,800	WN6h^[51]	11.18	40,000
R136b		92	163,000		13.24	35,500
VFTS 16		91.6	164,000		13.55	50,600
HD 97950 A3		91	24,800		12.95	50,000
NGC 346-W1		91	200,000		12.57	43,400			^[52]
Westerhout 49-2		90–240,	36,200		18.246	35,500			^[53] ^[54]
R127		90	160,000		10.15	10,000–27,000			^[55]
VFTS 333		90	164,000		12.49	37,600
VFTS 267		89	164,000		13.49	44,700
VFTS 64		88	164,000		14.621	39,800
BAT99-80 A		87	165,000		13	45,000
R140b		87	165,000		12.66	47,000
VFTS 542		87	164,000		13.47	44,700
VFTS 599		87	164,000		13.8	44,700
WR 89		87	11,000		11.02	39,800
Arches-F7		86.3	25,000		15.74	32,900
Sk -69° 104		86	160,000		12.1	39,900
VFTS 1017		86	164,000		14.5	50,100
LH 10-3061		85	160,000		13.491	52,000
Sk 80		85	200,000		12.31	38,900			^[56]
VFTS 603		85	164,000		13.99	42,200
		84.09	165,000		12.78	48,900			^[57] ^[58]
		84	164,000		12.993	47,300
HD 93250 A		83.3	7,500		7.5	46,000			^[59]
		83	163,000		13.79	50,000			^[60] ^[61]
WR 20a A		82.7	20,000		13.28	43,000			^[62]
TIC 276934932 A		82	160,000		14.05	45,000
WR 20a B		81.9	20,000		13.28	43,000
Trumpler 27-27		81	3,900		13.31	37,000
		80	165,000		13.76	42,000
		80	7,500		8.11	46,000
HD 38282 A		80	163,000		11.11	47,000
		80	163,000		14.56	47,500
Arches-F15		79.7	25,000		16.12	35,600
		79.66	165,000		13.83	51,300			^[63]
		79	164,000		14.161	42,200
		79	164,000		14.13	42,200
LH 41-32		78	160,000		13.086	48,200
Pismis 24-17		78	5,900		11.84	42,700			^[64]
		78	164,000		14.14	44,700
Westerhout 51-2			20,000		13.68	42,700
		76	165,000		14.13	45,000			^[65]
		76	10,000		8.23	45,400
NGC 346-W3		76	200,000		12.8	52,500
		76	164,000		14.437	47,300
		76	164,000		12.046	39,800
		75	197,000		15.238	79,000			^[66] ^[67]
WR 22 A		75	8,300		6.42	44,700			^[68]
Pismis 24-1NE		74	6,500		11	42,500			^[69]
		74	164,000		14.22	42,200
		73	163,000		14.12	47,500
Mercer 30-3		73	40,000		12.62	39,300
Mercer 30-11		73	40,000		12.33	36,800
		73	164,000		14.05	44,700
LH 64-16		72	160,000		13.666	50,900
NGC 2044-W35		72	160,000		14.1	48,200
		72	164,000		14.389	44,700
		71	160,000		14.3	44,100
		71	164,000		11.56	21,000			^[70]
Arches-F12		70	25,000		16.4	36,900
HD 15629		70	7,500		8.42	45,900
HD 37974		70	163,000		10.99	22,500			^[71] ^[72]
HD 93129 Ab		70	7,500		7.31	44,000			^[73]
M33 X-7 B		70	2,700,000		18.7	35,000			^[74] ^[75]
Sk -69° 194 A		70	160,000		12.131	45,000			^[76]
VFTS 125		69.6	164,000		16.6	55,200
HD 46150		69	5,200		6.73	44,000
HD 229059		69	3,000		8.7	26,300
ST2-3		69	160,000		14.264	44,900
ST2-32		69	160,000		13.903	45,400
W28-23		69	160,000		13.702	51,300
HD 93403 A		68.5	10,400		8.27	39,300			^[77]
HD 93130		68	10,000	O7II(f)^[78]	8.04	39,900
HM 1-8		68	11,000		12.52	46,100
HSH95-47		68	163,000		14.72	43,500
HSH95-48		68	163,000		14.75	46,500
Westerhout 51-61		68	20,000		18.16	38,000
BAT99-93		67	165,000		13.446	45,000
Sk -69° 200		67	160,000		11.18	26,300
Arches-F18		66.9	25,000		16.7	36,900
Arches-F4		66.4	25,000		15.63	36,800
BAT99-59 A		66	165,000		13.186	71,000
BAT99-104		66	165,000		12.5	63,000
HD 5980 B		66	200,000		11.31	45,000			^[79]
HD 190429 A		66	7,800		6.63	46,000			^[80]
LH 31-1003		66	160,000		13.186	41,900
LH 114-7		66	160,000		13.66	50,000			^[81]
Pismis 24-1SW		66	6,500		11.1	40,000
BAT99-126		65	165,000		13.166	71,000
HSH95-40		65	163,000		14.56	47,500
HSH95-58		65	163,000		14.8	47,500
HSH95-89		65	163,000		14.76	44,000
VFTS 63		65	164,000		14.4	42,200
VFTS 145		65	164,000		14.3	39,800
VFTS 518		65	164,000		15.11	44,700
Westerhout 49-8		65	36,200		15.617	40,700
		64.6	5,400		10.06	40,400			^[82]
BAT99-129 A		64	165,000		14.701	79,000			^[83]
HSH95-50		64	163,000		14.65	47,000
Sk -69° 25		64	160,000		11.886	43,600
Trumpler 27-23		64	3,900		10.09	27,500
Westerhout 49-5		64	36,200		15.623	42,700
HD 46223		63	5,200		7.28	46,000
HD 64568		63	16,000		9.39	54,000
HD 303308		63	9,200		8.17	51,300
HR 6187 A		63	4,300		5.54	46,500	Septenary		^[84]
LH 10-3058		63	160,000		14.089	54,000
ST5-71		63	160,000		13.266	45,400
AB9		62	197,000		15.431	100,000			^[85]
Brey 32 B		62	165,000		12.32	43,600
HD 93160		62	8,000		7.6	42,700
HSH95-35		62	163,000		14.43	47,500
LH 41-1017		62	160,000		12.266	42,700
Mercer 30-6a A		62	40,000		10.39	29,900
ST4-18		62	160,000		13.639	44,800
VFTS 664		62	164,000		13.937	39,900
HD 229196		61.6	5,000		8.59	40,900
AB8 B		61	197,000	O4V	12.83	45,000			^[86]
BAT99-79 A		61	165,000		13.486	42,000
HD 5980 A		61	200,000		11.31	21,000–53,000
LH 41-18		61	160,000		12.586	38,500
Mercer 30-9 A		61	40,000		12.25	34,500
ST5-25		61	160,000		13.551	48,600
VFTS 422		61	164,000		15.14	39,800
WR 102hb		61	26,000		13.9	25,100			^[87] ^[88]
Sk -67° 166		60.68	160,000		12.22	41,800			^[89]
Sk -67° 167		60.68	160,000		12.586	41,800
Sk -71° 46		60.68	160,000		13.241	41,800			^[90]
Brey 10		60	165,000		12.69	117,000
Brey 94 A		60	165,000		12.996	83,000
Brey 95a A		60	165,000		12.2	83,000			^[91]
HSH95-55		60	163,000		14.74	47,500
Mercer 30-7 A		60	40,000		11.516	41,400
R134		60	164,000		12.75	39,800
R142		60	164,000		11.82	18,000
R143		60	160,000		12.014	18,000–36,000
Sk -69° 142a		60	160,000		11.093	34,000
Sk -69° 259		60	160,000		11.93	23,000
Var 83		60	3,000,000		16.027	18,000–37,000			^[92] ^[93]
VFTS 430		60	164,000		15.11	24,500

A few notable large stars with masses less than 60  are shown in the table below for the purpose of comparison, ending with the Sun, which is very close, but would otherwise be too small to be included in the list. At present, all the listed stars are naked-eye visible and relatively nearby.

Star name	Location	Mass			Eff. temp.	method	Link	Ref.
		51.4	3,100	5.05	36,000
τ Canis Majoris Aa		50	5,120	4.89	32,000			^[94]
θ Muscae Ab		44	7,400	5.53	33,000			^[95]
		40	2,000	1.69	27,500			^[96]
θ^2 Orionis A		39	1,500	5.02	34,900			^[97] ^[98]
		37.6	6,000	4.29	29,000			^[99]
P Cygni		37	5,100	4.82	18,700			^[100] ^[101]
ζ^1 Scorpii		36	8,210	4.705	17,200			^[102]
ζ Orionis Aa		33	1,260	2.08	29,500			^[103]
θ^1 Orionis C1		33	1,340	5.13	39,000			^[104]
κ Cassiopeiae		33	4,000	4.16	23,500			^[105]
μ Normae		33	3,260	4.91	28,000			^[106]
η Carinae B		30	7,500	4.3	37,200			^[107]
γ^2 Velorum B		28.5	1,230	1.83	35,000
Meissa A		27.9	1,100	3.54	37,700			^[108]
		26.1	1,200	4.04	35,000
ζ Puppis			1,080	2.25	40,000			^[109] ^[110]
WR 79a		24.4	5,600	5.77	35,000
Mintaka Aa1		24	1,200	2.5	29,500			^[111] ^[112]
ι Orionis Aa1		23.1	1,340	2.77	32,500			^[113]
κ Crucis		23	7,500	5.98	16,300			^[114]
WR 78		22	4,100	6.48	50,100
ο^2 Canis Majoris		21.4	2,800	3.043	15,500
Rigel A		21	860	0.13	12,100			^[115]
		21	2,000	2.45	15,000
ζ Ophiuchi		20.2	370	2.569	34,000
υ Orionis		20	2,900	4.618	33,400			^[116] ^[117]
σ Orionis Aa		18	1,260	4.07	35,000			^[118] ^[119]
		16	1,300	5.18	33,000			^[120]
		15.5	650	2.09	26,500			^[121]
σ Cygni		15	3,260	4.233	10,800			^[122] ^[123]
θ Carinae A		14.9	460	2.76	31,000
θ^2 Orionis B		14.8	1,500	6.38	29,300			^[124]
ζ Persei		14.5	750	2.86	20,800
σ Orionis B		14	1,260	4.07	31,000
β Canis Majoris		13.5	490	1.985	23,200			^[125] ^[126]
ε Persei A		13.5	640	2.88	26,500			^[127] ^[128]
ι Orionis Aa2		13.1	1,340	2.77	27,000
δ Scorpii A		13	440	2.307	27,400			^[129] ^[130]
σ Orionis Ab		13	1,260	4.07	29,000
θ Muscae Aa		11.5	7,400	5.53	83,000			^[131]
γ^2 Velorum A		9	1,230	1.83	57,000			^[132]
ρ Ophiuchi A		8.7	360	4.63	22,000
		7.7	250	1.64	21,800			^[133]
Antares B		7.2	550	5.5	18,500			^[134]
λ Tauri A		7.18	480	3.47	18,700			^[135] ^[136]
δ Persei		7	520	3.01	14,900
ψ Persei		6.2	580	4.31	16,000
α Pavonis Aa		5.91	180	1.94	17,700			^[137] ^[138]
		5.9	440	2.87	12,300			^[139]
		5.6	440	4.1	13,600			^[140]
ο Velorum		5.5	490	3.6	16,200			^[141] ^[142]
ο Aquarii		4.2	440	4.71	13,500			^[143] ^[144]
ν Fornacis		3.65	370	4.69	13,400			^[145]
φ Eridani		3.55	150	3.55	13,700			^[146]
η Chamaeleontis		3.2	310	5.453	12,500			^[147]
ε Chamaeleontis		2.87	360	4.91	10,900			^[148]
τ^1 Aquarii		2.68	320	5.66	10,600			^[149]
ε Hydri		2.64	150	4.12	11,000			^[150] ^[151]
β^1 Tucanae		2.5	140	4.37	10,600
Sun		1	0.0000158	−26.744	5,772			^[152] ^[153] ^[154]

Black holes

See main article: Black hole, List of black holes and List of most massive black holes. Black holes are the end point of the evolution of massive stars. Technically they are not stars, as they no longer generate heat and light via nuclear fusion in their cores. Some black holes may have cosmological origins, and would then never have been stars. This is thought to be especially likely in the cases of the most massive black holes.

• Stellar black holes are objects with approximately
• Intermediate-mass black holes range from 100 to
• Supermassive black holes are in the range of millions or billions .

External links

• Web site: Statistics in Arches cluster . HubbleSite . May 2005.
• Web site: Most Massive Star Discovered . Space.com. 7 June 2007 .
• Web site: Arches cluster . ScienceDaily . March 2005.
• Web site: How heavy can a star get? . 3towers . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20071028091902/http://www.3towers.com/sGrasslands/Essays/HeavyStar/HeavyStar01.asp . 2007-10-28.
• Web site: Hubble Unveils Monster Stars. NASA . March 2016.

Notes and References

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