List of largest volcanic eruptions explained

In a volcanic eruption, lava, volcanic bombs, ash, and various gases are expelled from a volcanic vent and fissure. While many eruptions only pose dangers to the immediately surrounding area, Earth's largest eruptions can have a major regional or even global impact, with some affecting the climate and contributing to mass extinctions.[1] [2] Volcanic eruptions can generally be characterized as either explosive eruptions, sudden ejections of rock and ash, or effusive eruptions, relatively gentle outpourings of lava.[3] A separate list is given below for each type.

There have probably been many such eruptions during Earth's history beyond those shown in these lists. However erosion and plate tectonics have taken their toll, and many eruptions have not left enough evidence for geologists to establish their size. Even for the eruptions listed here, estimates of the volume erupted can be subject to considerable uncertainty.

Explosive eruptions

In explosive eruptions, the eruption of magma is driven by the rapid release of pressure, often involving the explosion of gas previously dissolved within the material. The most famous and destructive historical eruptions are mainly of this type. An eruptive phase can consist of a single eruption, or a sequence of several eruptions spread over several days, weeks or months. Explosive eruptions usually involve thick, highly viscous, silicic or felsic magma, high in volatiles like water vapor and carbon dioxide. Pyroclastic materials are the primary product, typically in the form of tuff. Eruptions the size of that at Lake Toba 74,000 years ago, at least, or the Yellowstone eruption 620,000 years ago, around, occur worldwide every 50,000 to 100,000 years.[1] [4]

Volcano—eruption[5] data-sort-type=numeric Age (millions of years)[6] Locationdata-sort-type="number"Volume (km3)[7] class=unsortableNotesclass=unsortable
Guarapuava —Tamarana—SarusasParaná and Etendeka traps8,600The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[8] [9] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[10]
Santa Maria—FriaParaná and Etendeka traps7,800The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.
Lake Toba Caldera—Youngest Toba TuffSunda Arc, IndonesiaLargest known eruption on earth in at least the last million years, possibly responsible for a population bottleneck of the human species (see Toba catastrophe theory)[11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]
Guarapuava —VenturaParaná and Etendeka traps7,600The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.
Flat Landing Brook EruptionFlat Landing Brook FormationOne of the largest and oldest supereruptions. Existence as a single eruption is controversial. Possibly a multiple 2,000+ km3 event under a million years.[17] [18]
Sam Ignimbrite and Green TuffYemenVolume includes 5550 km3 of distal tuffs. This estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3.[19]
Goboboseb–Messum volcanic centre—Springbok quartz latite unitParaná and Etendeka traps, Brazil and Namibia6,340The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[20]
Wah Wah Springs TuffIndian Peak-Caliente Caldera ComplexThe largest of the Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex, and includes flows over 4,000 meters thick at the most.[21]
Caxias do Sul—GrootbergParaná and Etendeka traps5,650The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.
La Garita Caldera—Fish Canyon TuffSan Juan volcanic field, Colorado5,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma.[22]
Lund Tuff29.2Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex4,400Formed the White Rock Caldera, one of the largest eruptions of the Mid-Tertiary Ignimbrite flareup.
Jacui—Goboboseb IIParaná and Etendeka traps4,350The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.
Ourinhos—KhorasebParaná and Etendeka traps3,900The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.
Jabal Kura'a IgnimbriteYemenVolume estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3.
Windows Butte tuffWilliam's Ridge, central Nevada3,500Part of the Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up[23] [24]
Anita Garibaldi—BeaconParaná and Etendeka traps3,450The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.
Oxaya ignimbritesChile3,000Really a regional correlation of many ignimbrites originally thought to be distinct[25]
Gakkel Ridge CalderaGakkel Ridge3,000It is the only known supervolcano located directly on the mid-ocean ridge.
Grey's Landing SupereruptionLocated in southern Idaho>2,800One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot Supereruptions; Largest Yellowstone eruption.[26]
Pacana Caldera—Atana ignimbriteChile2,800Forms a resurgent caldera.[27]
Mangakino Caldera—Kidnappers ignimbriteTaupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand2,760[28]
Iftar Alkalb—Tephra 4 WAfro-Arabian2,700
Yellowstone Caldera—Huckleberry Ridge TuffYellowstone hotspotOne of the largest Yellowstone eruptions on record[29]
Nohi Rhyolite—Gero Ash-Flow SheetHonshū, Japan2,200Nohi Rhyolite total volume over 7,000 km3 in 70 to 72 Ma, Gero Ash-Flow Sheet being the largest[30]
WhakamaruTaupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand2,000Largest in the Southern Hemisphere in the Late Quaternary[31]
Palmas BRA-21—WereldsendParaná and Etendeka traps1,900The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources. No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.
Kilgore tuffNear Kilgore, Idaho1,800Last of the eruptions from the Heise volcanic field
McMullen SupereruptionLocated in southern Idaho>1,700One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot eruptions.
Sana'a Ignimbrite—Tephra 2W63Afro-Arabian1,600
Deicke and MillbrigEngland, exposed in Northern Europe and Eastern US1,509[32] One of the oldest large eruptions preserved[33] [34]
Blacktail tuffBlacktail, Idaho1,500First of several eruptions from the Heise volcanic field[35]
Mangakino Caldera—Rocky HillTaupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,495
Aso CalderaKyushu, Japan930–1,860Aso-4 ignimbrite
Emory Caldera—Kneeling Nun tuffMogollon-Datil volcanic field1,310[36]
Omine-Odai Caldera—Murou pyroclastic flowHonshū, Japan1,260A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma.[37]
Timber Mountain tuffSouthwestern Nevada1,200Also includes a 900 cubic km tuff as a second member in the tuff
Paintbrush tuff (Tonopah Spring Member)Southwestern Nevada1,200Related to a 1000 cubic km tuff (Tiva Canyon Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff[38]
Bachelor—Carpenter Ridge tuffSan Juan volcanic field1,200Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma[39]
Bursum—Apache Springs TuffMogollon-Datil volcanic field1,200Related to a 1050 cubic km tuff, the Bloodgood Canyon tuff[40]
Taupō Volcano—Oruanui eruptionTaupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,170Most recent VEI 8 eruption[41]
Mangakino Caldera—Ongatiti–MangatewaiitiTaupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,150
Huaylillas IgnimbriteBolivia1,100Predates half of the uplift of the central Andes[42]
Bursum—Bloodgood Canyon TuffMogollon-Datil volcanic field1,050Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff, the Apache Springs tuff
Okueyama CalderaKyūshū, Japan1,030A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma.
Yellowstone Caldera—Lava Creek TuffYellowstone hotspot1,000Last large eruption in the Yellowstone National Park area[43]
Awasa CalderaMain Ethiopian Rift1,000[44]
Cerro GalánCatamarca Province, Argentina1,000Elliptical caldera is ~35 km wide[45]
Paintbrush tuff (Tiva Canyon Member)Southwestern Nevada1,000Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff (Topopah Spring Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff
San Juan—Sapinero Mesa TuffSan Juan volcanic field1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma
Uncompahgre—Dillon & Sapinero Mesa TuffsSan Juan volcanic field1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma
Platoro—Chiquito Peak tuffSan Juan volcanic field1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in the San Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma
Mount Princeton—Wall Mountain tuffThirtynine Mile volcanic area, Colorado1,000Helped cause the exceptional preservation at Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument[46]
Aira CalderaKyushu, Japan940–1,040Osumi pumice fall deposit, Ito ignimbrite, and Aira-Tanzawa ash fall deposit

Effusive eruptions

Effusive eruptions involve a relatively gentle, steady outpouring of lava rather than large explosions. They can continue for years or decades, producing extensive fluid mafic lava flows. For example, Kīlauea on Hawaiʻi continuously erupted from 1983 to 2018, producing 2.70NaN0 of lava covering more than 100-1NaN-1.[47] Despite their ostensibly benign appearance, effusive eruptions can be as dangerous as explosive ones: one of the largest effusive eruptions in history occurred in Iceland during the 1783–1784 eruption of Laki, which produced about 150NaN0 of lava and killed one fifth of Iceland's population.[48] The ensuing disruptions to the climate may also have killed millions elsewhere. Still larger were the Icelandic eruptions of Katla (the Eldgjá eruption) circa 934, with 180NaN0 of erupted lava, and the Þjórsárhraun eruption of Bárðarbunga circa 6700 BC, with 250NaN0 lava erupted, the latter being the largest effusive eruption in the last 10,000 years.[49] The lava fields of these eruptions measure 565 km2 (Laki), 700 km2 (Eldgjá) and 950 km2 (Þjórsárhraun).

EruptionAge (Millions of years)LocationVolume
(km3)		class=unsortableNotesclass=unsortableRefs
Mahabaleshwar–Rajahmundry Traps (Upper)Deccan Traps, India9,300
Wapshilla Ridge flowsColumbia River Basalt Group, United States5,000–10,000Member comprises 8–10 flows with a total volume of ~50,000 km3
McCoy Canyon flow Columbia River Basalt Group, United States4,300[50]
Umtanum flows Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,750Two flows with a total volume of 5,500 km3
Sand Hollow flowColumbia River Basalt Group, United States2,660
Pruitt Draw flowColumbia River Basalt Group, United States2,350
Museum flowColumbia River Basalt Group, United States2,350
Moonaree DaciteGawler Range Volcanics, Australia2,050One of the oldest large eruptions preserved
Rosalia flowColumbia River Basalt Group, United States1,900
Gran Canaria shield basalt eruptionGran Canaria, Spain1,000[51] p. 17
Joseph Creek flowColumbia River Basalt Group, United States1,850
Ginkgo BasaltColumbia River Basalt Group, United States1,600
California Creek–Airway Heights flowColumbia River Basalt Group, United States1,500
Stember Creek flowColumbia River Basalt Group, United States1,200

Large igneous provinces

See main article: Large igneous province. Highly active periods of volcanism in what are called large igneous provinces have produced huge oceanic plateaus and flood basalts in the past. These can comprise hundreds of large eruptions, producing millions of cubic kilometers of lava in total. No large eruptions of flood basalts have occurred in human history, the most recent having occurred over 10 million years ago. They are often associated with breakup of supercontinents such as Pangea in the geologic record,[52] and may have contributed to a number of mass extinctions. Most large igneous provinces have either not been studied thoroughly enough to establish the size of their component eruptions, or are not preserved well enough to make this possible. Many of the eruptions listed above thus come from just two large igneous provinces: the Paraná and Etendeka traps and the Columbia River Basalt Group. The latter is the most recent large igneous province, and also one of the smallest.[53] A list of large igneous provinces follows to provide some indication of how many large eruptions may be missing from the lists given here.

Igneous provincedata-sort-type="number"Age (Millions of years)LocationVolume (millions of km3)class=unsortableNotesclass=unsortableRefs
Ontong Java–Manihiki–Hikurangi Plateau121Southwest Pacific Ocean[54] Largest igneous body on Earth, later split into three widely separated oceanic plateaus, with a fourth component perhaps now accreted onto South America. Possibly linked to the Louisville hotspot.[55] [56] [57]
Kerguelen Plateau–Broken Ridge112South Indian Ocean, Kerguelen IslandsLinked to the Kerguelen hotspot. Volume includes Broken Ridge and the Southern and Central Kerguelen Plateau (produced 120–95 Ma), but not the Northern Kerguelen Plateau (produced after 40 Ma).[58] [59]
North Atlantic Igneous Province55.5North Atlantic Ocean[60] Linked to the Iceland hotspot.[61]
Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up32.5Southwest United States: mainly in Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and New MexicoMostly andesite to rhyolite explosive (.5 million km3) to effusive (5 million km3) eruptions, 25–40 Ma. Includes many volcanic centers, including the San Juan volcanic field.[62]
Caribbean large igneous province88Caribbean–Colombian oceanic plateauLinked to the Galápagos hotspot.[63]
Siberian Traps249.4Siberia, RussiaA large outpouring of lava on land, believed to have caused the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction ever.[64]
Karoo-Ferrar183Mainly Southern Africa and Antarctica. Also South America, India, Australia and New ZealandFormed as Gondwana broke up[65]
Paraná and Etendeka traps133Brazil/Angola and NamibiaLinked to the Tristan hotspot[66] [67]
Central Atlantic magmatic province200Laurasia continentsBelieved to be the cause of the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. Formed as Pangaea broke up[68]
Deccan Traps66Deccan Plateau, IndiaA large igneous province of west-central India, believed to have been one of the causes of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Linked to the Réunion hotspot.[69] [70]
Emeishan Traps256.5Southwestern ChinaAlong with Siberian Traps, may have contributed to the Permian–Triassic extinction event.[71]
Coppermine River Group1267Mackenzie Large Igneous Province/Canadian ShieldConsists of at least 150 individual flows.[72]
Ethiopia-Yemen Continental Flood Basalts28.5Ethiopia/Yemen/Afar, Arabian-Nubian ShieldAssociated with silicic, explosive tuffs[73] [74]
Columbia River Basalt Group16Pacific Northwest, United StatesWell exposed by Missoula Floods in the Channeled Scablands.[75]

See also

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Roy Britt. Robert. Super Volcano Will Challenge Civilization, Geologists Warn. LiveScience. 27 August 2010. 8 March 2005. https://web.archive.org/web/20120323192005/http://www.livescience.com/200-super-volcano-challenge-civilization-geologists-warn.html. 23 March 2012. live.
  2. Web site: Self. Steve. Flood basalts, mantle plumes and mass extinctions. Geological Society of London. 27 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20120229190222/http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/education/flood_basalts_1. 29 February 2012. live.
  3. Web site: Effusive & Explosive Eruptions. Geological Society of London. 28 August 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20131011005310/http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3599.html. 11 October 2013. live.
  4. Certain felsic provinces, such as the Chon Aike province in Argentina and the Whitsunday igneous province of Australia, are not included in this list because they are composed of many separate eruptions that have not been distinguished.
  5. (Data in this table are from Ward (2009) unless noted otherwise) Ward, Peter L.. Peter Langdon Ward. 2 April 2009. Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways. Thin Solid Films. Elsevier B. V.. 517. 11. 3188–3203. 10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. 2010-03-19. 2009TSF...517.3188W. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20100120022421/http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/SO2InitiatesClimateChange.pdf. 20 January 2010. Supplementary Table I: Web site: Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces. Teton Tectonics. 8 September 2010. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20100120021410/http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf. 20 January 2010. Supplementary Table II: Web site: Supplementary References to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009). Teton Tectonics. 8 September 2010. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20100120022442/http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1_References.pdf. 20 January 2010.
  6. Dates are an average of the range of dates of volcanics.
  7. These volumes are estimated total volumes of tephra ejected. If the available sources only report a dense rock equivalent volume, the number is italicized but not converted into a tephra volume.
  8. 2018-04-15. Lithostratigraphy and volcanology of the Serra Geral Group, Paraná-Etendeka Igneous Province in Southern Brazil: Towards a formal stratigraphical framework. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. en. 355. 98–114. 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.05.008. 0377-0273. Rossetti. Lucas. Lima. Evandro F.. Waichel. Breno L.. Hole. Malcolm J.. Simões. Matheus S.. Scherer. Claiton M.S.. 2018JVGR..355...98R. 2021-06-15. 2021-10-24. https://web.archive.org/web/20211024195117/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0377027317302810. live.
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  18. Web site: Archived copy . 2019-09-11 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191212184601/http://www.mineralogicalassociation.ca/doc/StJohns2012_GAC-MAC_Abstracts.pdf . 2019-12-12 . dead.
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  24. Best . Myron G. . Scott R. B. . Rowley P. D. . Swadley W. C. . Anderson R. E. . Grommé C. S. . Harding A. E. . Deino A. L. . Christiansen E. H. . Tingey D. G. . Sullivan K. R. . Oligocene–Miocene caldera complexes, ash-flow sheets, and tectonism in the central and southeastern Great Basin. Field Trip Guidebook for Cordilleran/Rocky Mountain Sections of the Geological Society of America . 1993 . Crustal Evolution of the Great Basin and the Sierra Nevada . 285–312.
  25. Wörner . Gerhard . Konrad Hammerschmidt . Friedhelm Henjes-Kunst . Judith Lezaun . Hans Wilke . Geochronology (40Ar/39Ar, K-Ar and He-exposure ages) of Cenozoic magmatic rocks from Northern Chile (18–22°S): implications for magmatism and tectonic evolution of the central Andes . . 2000 . 27 . 2 . 5 August 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110707012423/http://sigeo.sernageomin.cl/website/sigeo/Documentos/Productos/resumenes/BSN017026/BSN017026.htm . 7 July 2011.
  26. Knott . Thomas . Branney . M. . Reichow . Marc . Finn . David . Tapster . Simon . Coe . Robert . Discovery of two new super-eruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot track (USA): Is the Yellowstone hotspot waning? . Geology . June 2020 . 48 . 9 . 934–938 . 10.1130/G47384.1 . 2020Geo....48..934K . 21 June 2022. free.
  27. J. M. . Lindsay . S. de Silva . R. Trumbull . R. Emmermann . K. Wemmer . La Pacana caldera, N. Chile: a re-evaluation of the stratigraphy and volcanology of one of the world's largest resurgent calderas . . April 2001 . 106 . 1–2 . 145–173 . 10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00270-5 . . 2001JVGR..106..145L.
  28. Web site: Mangakino . . 9 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181209124038/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/vogripa/searchVOGRIPA.cfc?method=detail&id=950 . 9 December 2018 . live.
  29. Web site: Description: Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming . Topinka . Lyn . . 25 June 2009 . 6 August 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120204061306/http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Yellowstone/description_yellowstone.html . 4 February 2012 . live.
  30. Takahiro . Sonehara . Satoru . Harayama . Petrology of the Nohi Rhyolite and its related granitoids: A Late Cretaceous large silicic igneous field in central Japan . . 167 . 1–4 . 57–80 . 1 November 2007 . 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.05.012 . 2007JVGR..167...57S.
  31. Froggatt . P. C. . Nelson, C. S. . Carter, L. . Griggs, G. . Black, K. P. . An exceptionally large late Quaternary eruption from New Zealand . . 319 . 578–582 . 13 February 1986 . 10.1038/319578a0 . 6054 . 1986Natur.319..578F . 4332421.
  32. Also the site of 972and eruptions.
  33. Web site: Plate Tectonics from the Middle of the Plate . Stetten . Nancy . 5 August 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120310063829/http://www.nashvillefossils.com/exercises/volcano/volcano.html . 10 March 2012 . live.
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