The Chinese monarchs were the rulers of China during its Ancient and Imperial periods. The earliest rulers in traditional Chinese historiography are of mythological origin, and followed by the Xia dynasty of highly uncertain and contested historicity. During the subsequent Shang and Zhou (1046–256 BCE) dynasties, rulers were referred to as Wang Chinese: 王, meaning king. China was fully united for the first time by Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE), who established the first Imperial dynasty, adopting the title Huangdi (Chinese: 皇帝), meaning Emperor, which remained in use until the Imperial system's fall in 1912.
At no point during Ancient or Imperial China was there a formalized means to confer legitimate succession between rulers. From the Zhou dynasty onwards, monarchs justified their reigns by claiming the Mandate of Heaven (Chinese: 天命; Tianming). The mandate held that a ruler and their successors had permission from the heavens to rule as long as they did so effectively. It also declared a ruler the Son of Heaven (Chinese: 天子; Tianzi), giving them the right to rule "all under heaven" (Chinese: 天下; Tianxia). Given the Mandate's subjective nature, rulers also utilized a variety of methods to retain support and justify their accession. This ranged from military enforcement, political patronage, establishing peace and solidity, institutional reform, and historical revisionism to legitimize the dissolution previous dynasties and their own succession. For most of Imperial China, the wuxing (Chinese: 五行; "Five Elements") philosophical scheme was also central to justify dynastic succession.
Most Chinese monarchs had many names. They were given a personal name (Chinese: 名字; Mingzi) at birth, but later referred to by a posthumous name (Chinese: 謚號; Shihao)—which memorialized their accomplishments or character—due to a cultural naming taboo. Most emperors of the Imperial period also received a temple name (Chinese: 廟號; Miaohao), used to venerate them in ancestor worship. From the rule of Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE) onwards, emperors also adopted one or several era names (Chinese: 年號; Nianhao), or "reign mottos", to divide their rule by important events or accomplishments. Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) rulers are referred to solely by their era names, of which they only had one.
Apart from ethnic Han rulers, China was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, including Jurchen, Khitan, Manchu, Mongol and Tangut and many others. To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or the Chakravarti of Chinese Buddhism. There are numerous lengthy periods where many competing kingdoms claimed the throne, many of whose legitimacy is still debated by scholars.
In traditional Chinese historiography, various models of mythological founding rulers exist. The relevancy of these figures to the earliest Chinese people is unknown, since most accounts of them were written from the Warring States period (BCE) onwards. The sinologist Kwang-chih Chang has generalized the typical stages: "the first period was populated by gods, the second by demigods/culture hero, and the third by the legendary kings." The primordial god Pangu is given by many texts as the earliest figure and is credited with forming the world by separating heaven and earth. Other gods include Nüwa, who repaired heaven; Hou Yi, a mythical archer; and Gonggong, a serpent-like water deity.
Demigod and hero rulers from hero myths—the largest group Chinese myths—are attributed the invention of specific items, practices or traditions. Among the more important of them are Fuxi, the inventor of hunting; Suiren, who invented fire; and Shennong, who invented both agriculture and medicine. The subsequent legendary kings began with the Yellow Emperor (Chinese: 黃帝), known as Huangdi, a major culture hero of Chinese civilization whose reign was considered exemplary. Succeeding rulers include some combination of Shaohao, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun. Since the late Warring States onwards, early Chinese monarchs have traditionally been ground into the concept of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors; however, the chosen figures of this grouping varies considerably between sources. Generally, most accounts include at least Fuxi and Shennong among the Three Sovereigns as well as the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun among the Five Emperors.
The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period was followed by the Xia dynasty in traditional historiography. Founded by Yu the Great, both the dynasty and its rulers are of highly uncertain and controversial historicity.
| Name | Speculative reign length | Traditional succession | Capital | Purported life details | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yu Chinese: 禹 | 45 | 7 | Chosen by the mythical Emperor Shun | Ji | Awarded the throne after his institution of flood control. He is often known as "Yu the Great" and his passing of the throne to his son marked the beginning of China's hereditary succession | |
| Qi Chinese: 啟 | 10 | 8 | Son of Yu | Xiayi | Prevented a rebellion led by his son Wuguan | |
| (Tai) Kang Chinese: （太）康 | 29 | 28 | Son of Qi | Zhenxun | Traditionally considered an ineffective king, either due to tyranny or incompetence. May have been briefly dethroned by the mythical hero Han Zhuo and later murdered by Han's son Ao | |
| (Zhong) Kang Chinese: （仲）康 | 13 | 13 | Son of Qi | Zhenxun | May not have ruled as his existence is sometimes absent from Xia king lists | |
| Xiang Chinese: 相 | 28 | 28 | Son of (Zhong) Kang | Shang, then Zhenxun | Killed by a son of Han Zhuo | |
| Interregnum, ruled by Han Zhuo | ||||||
| (Shao) Kang Chinese: （少）康 | 21 | 21 | Son of Xiang | Yuan | Restored the dynasty after killing Han Zhuo and his sons | |
| Zhu Chinese: 杼 | 17 | 16 | Son of (Shao) Kang | Yuan, then Laoqiu | Little is known of his reign | |
| Huai Chinese: 槐 | 26 | 25 | Son of Zhu | – | Little is known of his reign; may have ruled up to 40 years | |
| Mang Chinese: 芒 | 18 | 17 | Son of Huai | – | Little is known of his reign | |
| Xie Chinese: 泄 | 16 | 15 | Son of Mang | – | Little is known of his reign | |
| (Bu) Jiang Chinese: （不）降 | 59 | 58 | Son of Xie | – | Little is known of his reign; campaigned against the northwestern peoples | |
| Jiong Chinese: 扃 | 21 | 20 | Son of Xie | – | Little is known of his reign | |
| Jin Chinese: 廑 | 21 | 20 | Son of Jiong | Xihe | Little is known of his reign | |
| Kong Jia Chinese: 孔甲 | 31 | 30 | Son of (Bu) Jiang | Xihe | His reign inaugurated the Xia's gradual decline | |
| Gao Chinese: 皋 | 11 | 10 | Son of Kong Jia | – | Little is known of his reign | |
| Fa Chinese: 發 | 11 | 20? | Son of Gao | – | May have only reigned 7 years. His reign saw the earliest recorded earthquake, identified with the Mount Tai earthquake. | |
| Jie Chinese: 桀 | 52 | 52 | Son of Fa | Zhenxun, then Henan | Traditionally considered a cruel and oppressive ruler. Fled the empire after losing the Battle of Mingtiao to the state of Shang | |
Unlike the Xia, the Shang dynasty's historicity is firmly established, due to written records on divination objects known as Oracle bones. The oldest such oracle bones date to the Late Shang, during the reign of Wu Ding (1250–1192), putting the exact details of earlier rulers into doubt.
| Personal name | Tentative reign (BCE) | Traditional succession | Residence | Purported life details | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| XSZ Project | ||||||||
Early Shang | ||||||||
| Tang Chinese: 汤----Da Yi Chinese: 大乙 | Zi Lü Chinese: 子履 | Defeated the purportedly tyrannous Jie of Xia at the Battle of Mingtiao and established the Shang dynasty | Bo, then Shangyi | Traditionally considered a noble and virtuous ruler | ||||
| Da Ding Chinese: 大丁----Tai Ding Chinese: 太丁 | unknown | – | – | Son of Tang | – | Uncertain whether he was ever enthroned; may have died before succeeding his father | ||
| Wai Bing Chinese: 外丙 | Zi Sheng Chinese: 子勝 | — | — | Son of Tang | Bo | — | ||
| Zhong Ren Chinese: 中壬 | Zi Yong Chinese: 子庸 | — | — | Son of Tang | Bo | Not listed in the oracle bones inscriptions | ||
| Tai Jia Chinese: 太甲 | Zi Zhi Chinese: 子至 | — | — | Son of Da Ding | Bo | Traditionally considered an autocratic and cruel ruler | ||
| Wo Ding Chinese: 沃丁----Qiang Ding Chinese: 羌丁 | Zi Xuan Chinese: 子絢 | — | — | Son of Tai Jia | Bo | His name is not found in oracle bone inscriptions, making his certainty as a ruler less secure. | ||
| Tai Geng Chinese: 太庚----Da Geng Chinese: 大庚 | Zi Bian Chinese: 子辯 | — | — | Son of Tai Jia | Bo | – | ||
| Xiao Jia Chinese: 小甲 | Zi Gao Chinese: 子高 | — | — | Son of Tai Geng | Bo | – | ||
| Yong Ji Chinese: 雍己 | Zi Zhou Chinese: 子伷 | — | — | Son of Tai Geng | Bo | May have reigned after Tai Wu | ||
| Tai Wu Chinese: 太戊----Da Wu Chinese: 大戊 | Zi Mi Chinese: 子密 | — | — | Son of Tai Geng | Bo | Said to have had a particularly long reign; one source records 75 years. The astronomer Wuxian was active under him | ||
| Zhong Ding Chinese: 仲丁 | Zi Zhung Chinese: 子莊 | — | — | Son of Tai Wu | Ao | May have succeeded Yong Ji | ||
| Wai Ren Chinese: 外壬 | Zi Fā Chinese: 子發 | — | — | Son of Tai Wu | Ao | – | ||
| He Dan Jia Chinese: 河亶甲 | Zi Zheng Chinese: 子整 | — | — | Son of Tai Wu | Xiang | Moved the capital to Xiang (Chinese: 相) and engaged in military campaigns | ||
| Zu Yi Chinese: 祖己 | Zi Teng Chinese: 子滕 | — | — | Son of Zhong Ding | Geng | The dynasty flourished particularly during his reign | ||
| Zu Xin Chinese: 祖辛 | Zi Dan Chinese: 子旦 | — | — | Son of Zu Yi | Bi | – | ||
| Wo Jia Chinese: 沃甲----Qiang Jia Chinese: 羌甲 | Zi Yu Chinese: 子踰 | — | — | Son of Zu Yi | Bi | – | ||
| Zu Ding Chinese: 祖丁 | Zi Xin Chinese: 子新 | — | — | Son of Zu Xin | Bi | – | ||
| Nan Geng Chinese: 南庚 | Zi Geng Chinese: 子更 | — | — | Son of Wo Jia | Bi, then Yan | Moved the capital from Bi (Chinese: 庇) to Yan (Chinese: 奄) | ||
| Yang Jia Chinese: 陽甲 | Zi He Chinese: 子和 | — | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yan | His reign marked the decline of the Shang | ||
| Pan Geng Chinese: 盤庚 | Zi Xun Chinese: 子旬 | 1300–1251 (years) | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yan, then Yin | Traditionally said to have moved the dynasty's capital from Yan (Chinese: 奄) to Yin (Chinese: 殷) Led a prosperous reign | ||
| Xiao Xin Chinese: 小辛 | Zi Song Chinese: 子颂 | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yin | His reign saw the continuation of the Shang's decline | |||
| Xiao Yi Chinese: 小乙 | Zi Lian Chinese: 子敛 | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yin | – | |||
Late ShangSee also: Late Shang and Periodization of the Shang dynasty. | ||||||||
| Wu Ding Chinese: 武丁 | Zi Zhao Chinese: 子昭 | 1250–1192 (years) | ?–1189 | Son of Xiao Yi | Yin | A powerful king with a lengthy reign. Made his wife Fu Hao the a military general and is purportedly defeated the mostly-unknown Guifang people. The first ruler whose name is included in oracle bones which date to his reign. | ||
| Zu Geng Chinese: 祖庚 | Zi Yue Chinese: 子躍 | 1191–1148 (years) | 1188–1178 (years) | Son of Wu Ding | Yin | Possibly commissioned the Houmuwu ding in memory of his mother Fu Jing | ||
| Zu Jia Chinese: 祖甲 | Zi Zai Chinese: 子載 | 1177–1158 (years) | Son of Wu Ding | Yin | Reformed the ritual and calendar systems, as recording in the Book of Documents | |||
| Lin Xin Chinese: 廩辛 | Zi Xian Chinese: 子先 | 1157–1149 (years) | Son of Zu Jia | Yin | Due to inconsistencies in the oracle bone inscriptions, it is possible he did not reign. | |||
| Geng Ding Chinese: 庚丁----Kang Ding Chinese: 康丁 | Zi Xiao Chinese: 子囂 | 1148–1132 (years) | Son of Zu Jia | Yin | His reign accelerated the dynasty's decline | |||
| Wu Yi Chinese: 武乙 | Zi Qu Chinese: 子瞿 | 1147–1131 (years) | 1131–1117 (years) | Son of Geng Ding | Yin, Hebei, then Mo | Engaged in numerous military campaigns, including against the state of Yiqu. Traditionally held to have been killed by a lightning strike, considered a bad omen | ||
| Wen Wu Ding Chinese: 文武丁----Wen Ding Chinese: 文丁 | Zi Tuo Chinese: 子托 | 1112–1102 (years) | 1116–1106 (years) | Son of Wu Yi | Yin | The Predynastic Zhou rose in power during his reign, led by Ji, King of Zhou | ||
| Di Yi Chinese: 帝乙 | Zi Xian Chinese: 子羡 | 1101–1076 (years) | 1105–1087 (years) | Son of Wen Wu Ding | Yin | Supposedly married his daughter to King Wen of Zhou, or married his sister to Ji, King of Zhou | ||
| Di Xin Chinese: 帝辛 (紂) | Zi Shou Chinese: 子受 | 1075–1046 (years) | 1086–1045 (years) | Son of Di Yi | Yin | Killed by Ji Fa during the Battle of Muye | ||
| Personal name | Tentative reign (BCE) | Traditional succession | Purported life details | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| XSZ Project | ||||||
Western ZhouSee also: Western Zhou. | ||||||
| Wu Chinese: 武 | Ji Fa Chinese: 姬發 | 1046–1043 (years) | 1049–1043 (years) | Son of King Wen | Defeated the tyrannical King Zhou of Shang in the Battle of Muye | |
| Cheng Chinese: 成 | Ji Song Chinese: 姬誦 | 1042–1021 (years) | 1042–1006 (years) | Son of Wu | Most of his reign was controlled by the Duke of Zhou, who suppressed the Rebellion of the Three Guards | |
| Kang Chinese: 康 | Ji Zhao Chinese: 姬釗 | 1020–996 (years) | 1005–978 (years) | Son of Cheng | His accession established Zhou primogeniture. A largely peaceful reign | |
| Zhao Chinese: 昭 | Ji Xia Chinese: 姬瑕 | 995–977 (years) | 977–957 (years) | Son of Kang | Lost the Zhou–Chu War, during which he died. His reign marked the Zhou's gradual decline | |
| Mu Chinese: 穆 | Ji Man Chinese: 姬滿 | 976–922 (years) | 956–918 (years) | Son of Zhao | Engaged in many destabilizing territory conflicts | |
| Gong Chinese: 共 | Ji Yihu Chinese: 姬繄扈 | 922–900 (years) | 917–900 (years) | Son of Mu | Little is known of his reign | |
| Yih Chinese: 懿 | Ji Jian Chinese: 姬囏 | 899–892 (years) | 899–873 (years) | Son of Gong | Little is known of his reign; may have been removed from power by Xiao | |
| Xiao Chinese: 孝 | Ji Pifang Chinese: 姬辟方 | 891–886 (years) | 872–866 (years) | Son of Mu | Little is known of his reign | |
| Yí Chinese: 夷 | Ji Xie Chinese: 姬燮 | 885–878 (years) | 865–858 (years) | Son of Yih | Continued decline of the Zhou | |
| Li Chinese: 厲 | Ji Hu Chinese: 姬胡 | 877–841 (years) | 857–842 (years) | Son of Yí | Traditionally considered a corrupt and cruel ruler. Exiled amid a peasant rebellion | |
| Gonghe Regency (共和; 841–828) | ||||||
| Xuan Chinese: 宣 | Ji Jing Chinese: 姬靜 | 827–782 | Son of Li | Had military successes, aiming to restore Zhou authority | ||
| You Chinese: 幽 | Ji Gongnie Chinese: 姬宮涅 | 781–771 (years) | 782–771 (years) | Son of Xuan | Numerous natural disasters occurred, after which Quanrong him and overran the capital | |
Eastern ZhouSee also: Eastern Zhou. | ||||||
| Spring and Autumn period (春秋時代; 770–476 BCE) | ||||||
| Ping Chinese: 平 | Ji Yijiu Chinese: 姬宜臼 | 770–720 (years) | Son of You | Moved the capital to Luoyang | ||
| Huan Chinese: 桓 | Ji Lin Chinese: 姬林 | 719–697 (years) | Grandson of Ping | Defeated by the Duke of Zheng at the Battle of Xuge, accelerating the Zhou dynasty's decline in power | ||
| Zhuang Chinese: 莊 | Ji Tuo Chinese: 姬佗 | 696–682 (years) | Son of Huan | Royal court's authority began declining | ||
| Xi Chinese: 釐 | Ji Huqi Chinese: 姬胡齊 | 681–677 (years) | Son of Zhuang | Briefly reigned as the Duke Huan led the Qi to surpass the Zhou in power | ||
| Hui Chinese: 惠 | Ji Lang Chinese: 姬閬 | 676–652 (years) | Son of Xi | Slowed the Chu state's rise | ||
| Xiang Chinese: 襄 | Ji Zheng Chinese: 姬鄭 | 651–619 (years) | Son of Hui | Briefly deposed by his brother, but reinstated by Duke Wen | ||
| Qing Chinese: 頃 | Ji Renchen Chinese: 姬壬臣 | 618–613 (years) | Son of Xiang | Briefly reigned | ||
| Kuang Chinese: 匡 | Ji Ban Chinese: 姬班 | 612–607 (years) | Son of Qing | Increasing fighting between surrounding kingdoms | ||
| Ding Chinese: 定 | Ji Yu Chinese: 姬瑜 | 606–586 (years) | Son of Qing | Continued fighting of surrounding kingdoms | ||
| Jian Chinese: 簡 | Ji Yi Chinese: 姬夷 | 585–572 (years) | Son of Ding | Continued fighting of surrounding kingdoms | ||
| Ling Chinese: 靈 | Ji Xiexin Chinese: 姬泄心 | 571–545 (years) | Son of Jian | Weakened relations with surrounding kingdoms | ||
| Jing Chinese: 景 | Ji Gui Chinese: 姬貴 | 544–521 (years) | Son of Ling | Died without an heir, causing a power struggle and rebellion | ||
| Dao Chinese: 悼 | Ji Meng Chinese: 姬猛 | 520 (less than a year) | Son of Jing (544–521) | Briefly ruled before being murdered by his brother | ||
| Jing Chinese: 敬 | Ji Gai Chinese: 姬丐 | 519–476 (years) | Son of Jing (544–521) | Briefly exiled during a revolt. Ruled during the lifetime of Confucius | ||
| Warring States period (戰國時代; 475–221 BCE) | ||||||
| Yuan Chinese: 元 | Ji Ren Chinese: 姬仁 | 475–469 (years) | Son of Jing (519–476) | Decline in Zhou's power | ||
| Zhending Chinese: 貞定 | Ji Jie Chinese: 姬介 | 468–442 (years) | Son of Yuan | Continued decline of Zhou | ||
| Ai Chinese: 哀 | Ji Quji Chinese: 姬去疾 | 441 (less than a year) | Son of Zhending | Continued decline of Zhou. Killed by Si | ||
| Si Chinese: 思 | Ji Shu Chinese: 姬叔 | 441 (less than a year) | Son of Zhending | Continued decline of Zhou. Killed by Kao | ||
| Kao Chinese: 考 | Ji Wei Chinese: 姬嵬 | 440–426 (years) | Son of Zhending | – | ||
| Weilie Chinese: 威烈 | Ji Wu Chinese: 姬午 | 425–402 (years) | Son of Kao | – | ||
| An Chinese: 安 | Ji Jiao Chinese: 姬驕 | 401–376 (years) | Son of Weilie | Wei increased in power | ||
| Lie Chinese: 烈 | Ji Xi Chinese: 姬喜 | 375–369 (years) | Son of An | – | ||
| Xian Chinese: 顯 | Ji Bian Chinese: 姬扁 | 368–321 (years) | Son of An | Qin began to rise in power | ||
| Shenjing Chinese: 慎靚 | Ji Ding Chinese: 姬定 | 320–315 (years) | Son of Xian | Qin's power grew significantly during his reign | ||
| Nan Chinese: 赧 | Ji Yan Chinese: 姬延 | 314–256 (years) | Son of Shenjing | Longest reigning Zhou ruler, though held little power amid the divided kingdom. Conquered and deposed by King Zhaoxiang of Qin | ||
| Dynastic name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qin Shi Huang Chinese: 秦始皇 | Ying Zheng Chinese: 嬴政 Zhao Zheng Chinese: 趙政 | 221 – July 210 BCE (11 years) | Son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin. As King Zheng of Qin, he conquered the six other states during the Warring States period and proclaimed himself Emperor (皇帝; Huangdi). | 259 – July 210 BCE (years) Instilled a Legalist philosophy, combined preexisting walls into the Great Wall of China, and built the Lingqu canal and the Terracotta Army. Died of sudden illness, possibly alchemical elixir poisoning | |
| Qin Er Shi Chinese: 秦二世 | Ying Huhai Chinese: 嬴胡亥 | 210 – October 207 BCE (3 years) | Second son of Qin Shi Huang. Put on the throne by Li Si and Zhao Gao, who forced the appointed heir Fusu to commit suicide. | 231/222 – October 207 BCE (/ years) His reign was completely dominated by Zhao Gao. Forced by Zhao to commit suicide | |
| As the Qin dynasty greatly weakened in power, the Chu–Han Contention began in 206 BCE and ended with Liu Bang inaugurating the Han dynasty in 202 BCE | |||||
See main article: List of emperors of the Han dynasty.
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) | |||||
| Gaozu Chinese: 高祖 Gao Chinese: 高帝 | Liu Bang Chinese: 劉邦 | 28 February 202– 1 June 195 BCE | Unified China and proclaimed himself Emperor after victory in the Chu–Han Contention | 256 – 1 June 195 BCE (aged 61)----Among the most revered Chinese emperors. Died from an arrow injury in a campaign against Ying Bu | |
| Hui Chinese: 惠帝 | Liu Ying Chinese: 劉盈 | 23 June 195 – 26 September 188 BCE | Son of Gao | 210 – 26 September 188 BCE (aged 22)----His reign was largely dominated by his mother Empress Lü. Died from an unknown illness | |
| Qianshao Chinese: 前少帝 | Liu Gong Chinese: 劉恭 | 19 October 188 – 15 June 184 BCE | Purportedly a son of Hui | ? – after 184 BCE----An infant emperor whose reign was completely dominated by Empress Lü. Deposed and put under house arrest; unknown date of death after 184 | |
| Houshao Chinese: 後少帝 | Liu Yi Chinese: 劉盈 Liu Hong Chinese: 劉弘 | 15 June 184 – 15 August 180 BCE | Purportedly a son of Hui | ? – 14 November 180----An infant emperor whose reign was completely dominated by Empress Lü. Put to death by the House of Lü | |
| Wen Chinese: 文帝 | Liu Heng Chinese: 劉恆 | 14 November 180 – 6 July 157 BCE | Son of Gao | 203/202 – 6 July 157 BCE (aged 46)----Died of natural causes | |
| Jing Chinese: 景帝 | Liu Qi Chinese: 劉啟 | 14 July 157 – 10 March 141 BCE | Son of Wen | 188 – 10 March 141 BCE (aged 47)----Died of natural causes | |
| Wu Chinese: 武帝 | Liu Che Chinese: 劉徹 | 10 March 141 – 29 March 87 BCE | Son of Jing | 157/156 – 29 March 87 BCE (aged 69)----Among the longest reigning and highly regarded Chinese emperors. Expanded the Han dynasty considerably. Died from an unknown illness | |
| Zhao Chinese: 昭帝 | Liu Fuling Chinese: 劉弗陵 | 30 March 87 – 5 June 74 BCE | Son of Wu | 94 – 5 June 74 BCE (aged 20)----Died from natural causes | |
| None, known as Marquis of Haihun Chinese: 海昏侯 | Liu He Chinese: 劉賀 | 18 July – 14 August 74 BCE | Grandson of Wu | 92–59 BCE (aged 32–33)----Briefly installed by Huo Guang and not often considered legitimate. Died from natural causes | |
| Xuan Chinese: 宣帝 | Liu Bingyi Chinese: 劉病已 Liu Xun Chinese: 劉詢 | 10 September 74 – 10 January 48 BCE | Great-grandson Wu | 91 – 10 January 48 BCE (aged 43)----His reign is sometimes considered a cultural and political 'renaissance'. Died from natural causes | |
| Yuan Chinese: 元帝 | Liu Shi Chinese: 劉奭 | 29 January 48 – 3 July 33 BCE | Son of Xuan | 75 – 8 July 33 BCE (aged 42)----Died from an unknown illness | |
| Cheng Chinese: 成帝 | Liu Ao Chinese: 劉驁 | 4 August 33 – 17 April 7 BCE | Son of Yuan | 51 – 17 April 7 BCE (aged 44)----Died from a stroke or possibly complications from an aphrodisiac overdose | |
| Ai Chinese: 哀帝 | Liu Xin Chinese: 劉欣 | 7 May 7 – 15 August 1 BCE | Grandson of Yuan | 27 – 15 August 1 BCE (aged 26)----Died from an unknown illness | |
| Ping Chinese: 平帝 | Liu Kan Chinese: 劉衎 | 17 October 1 BCE – 3 February 6 CE | Grandson of Yuan | 9 BCE – 3 February 6 CE (aged 14)----His reign was dominated by Wang Zhengjun and Wang Mang. He was murdered, possibly by orders from the latter. | |
| None, known as Ruzi Ying Chinese: 孺子嬰 | Liu Ying Chinese: 劉嬰 | 17 April 6 – 10 January 9 CE | Cousin-once-removed of Ping | 5 – 25 CE (aged 20)----A child puppet of Wang Mang; often not considered legitimate. He later attempted to succeed the Gengshi Emperor, but was killed by him | |
Xin dynasty (9–23 CE)See also: Xin dynasty. | |||||
| — | Wang Mang Chinese: 王莽 | 10 January 9 – 6 October 23 CE | After dominating the reign of Emperor Ping, Wang Mang overthrew him and established the short-lived Xin dynasty | 46 BCE – 6 October 23 CE (aged 68)----Established the Xin dynasty, but his drastic reforms incited the Red Eyebrows and Lulin peasant rebellions which collapsed the dynasty. | |
Gengshi Emperor (23–25 CE) | |||||
| None, known by his era: Gengshi Chinese: 更始帝 | Liu Xuan Chinese: 劉玄 | 11 March 23 – November 25 CE | Descendant of Jing | ? – November 25 CE----Strangled on the orders of, a leader of the Red Eyebrows. Sometimes considered a pretender and illegitimate | |
Eastern Han (25–220 CE) | |||||
| Guangwu Chinese: 光武帝 | Liu Xiu Chinese: 劉秀 | 5 August 25 – 29 March 57 CE | Descendant of Jing | 15 January 5 BCE – 29 March 57 CE (aged 62)----Died of natural causes | |
| Ming Chinese: 明帝 | Liu Yang Chinese: 劉陽 Liu Zhuang Chinese: 劉莊 | 29 March 58 – 5 September 75 CE | Son of Guangwu | 28 – 5 September 75 CE (aged 48)----Died of natural causes | |
| Zhang Chinese: 章帝 | Liu Da Chinese: 劉炟 | 5 September 75 – 9 April 88 CE | Son of Ming | 56 – 9 April 88 CE (aged 32)----His reign marked the beginning of the Han's decline. Died of natural causes | |
| He Chinese: 和帝 | Liu Zhao Chinese: 劉肇 | 9 April 88 – 13 February 106 CE | Son of Zhang | 79 – 13 February 106 (aged 27)----Died of natural causes | |
| Shang Chinese: 殤帝 | Liu Long Chinese: 劉隆 | 13 February – 21 September 106 CE | Son of He | 105 – 21 September 106 (aged 4)----Died of natural causes | |
| An Chinese: 安帝 | Liu Hu Chinese: 劉祜 Liu You Chinese: 劉友 | 23 September 106 – 30 April 125 CE | Grandson of Zhang | 94 – 30 April 125 (aged 32)----Died of natural causes | |
| None, known as Marquess of Beixiang Chinese: 北鄉侯 | Liu Yi Chinese: 劉懿 | 18 May – 10 December 125 CE | Grandson of Emperor Zhang | ?–125 CE----Briefly reigned, probably as a child; often not considered legitimate. Died of natural causes | |
| Shun Chinese: 順帝 | Liu Bao Chinese: 劉保 | 16 December 125 – 20 September 144 | Son of An | 115 – 20 September 144 CE (aged 29)----Died of natural causes | |
| Chong Chinese: 沖帝 | Liu Bing Chinese: 劉炳 | 20 September 144 – 15 February 145 | Son of Shun | 143 – 15 February 145 CE (aged 2)----Died of natural causes | |
| Zhi Chinese: 質帝 | Liu Zuan Chinese: 劉纘 | 6 March 145 – 26 July 146 | Cousin of Chong and great-grandson of Emperor Zhang | 138 – 26 July 146 CE (aged 7–8)----His reign was dominated by Liang Ji, who may have poisoned him. Otherwise he died from food poisoning | |
| Huan Chinese: 桓帝 | Liu Zhi Chinese: 劉志 | 1 August 146 – 25 January 168 | Great-grandson of Zhang | 132 – 25 January 168 CE (aged 36)----Died of natural causes | |
| Ling Chinese: 靈帝 | Liu Hong Chinese: 劉宏 | 17 February 168 – 13 May 189 | Great-great-grandson of Zhang | 156 – 13 May 189 CE (aged 32–33)----Died of an unknown illness | |
| Prince of Hongnong Chinese: 弘農王 | Liu Bian Chinese: 劉辯 | 15 May – 28 September 189 CE | Son of Ling | 173/176 – 22 March 190 CE (aged 13–14)----Briefly reigned as a child; often not considered legitimate. Poisoned by Dong Zhuo | |
| Xian Chinese: 獻帝 | Liu Xie Chinese: 劉協 | 28 September 189 – 11 December 220 | Son of Ling | 2 April 181 – 21 April 234 (aged 53)----A puppet of Dong Zhuo and later Cao Cao. Forced to abdicate by Cao Pi, but spared. Died of natural causes | |
| Cao Cao is defeated at the Battle of Red Cliffs by Sun Quan and Liu Bei, preventing him from uniting seceded southern Han territory. The region becomes split into three competing powers: Cao Wei, Eastern Wu, and Shu Han. | |||||
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cao Pi Chinese: 曹丕 | Emperor Wen Chinese: 文帝 | 11 December 220 – 29 June 226 | The eldest son of Cao Cao. Inherited what lands the Eastern Han dynasty still controlled to found the Cao Wei state | 187 – 29 June 226 (aged 38–39)----Died of natural causes | |
| Cao Rui Chinese: 曹叡 | Emperor Ming Chinese: 明帝 | 29 June 226 – 22 January 239 | Son of Cao Pi and grandson of Cao Cao | – 22 January 239 (aged 34–35)----Died of natural causes | |
| Cao Fang Chinese: 曹芳 | Emperor Shao Chinese: 少帝 Emperor Fei Chinese: 廢帝 | 22 January 239 – 16 October 254 | Adopted heir by Cao Rui, who had no sons of his own. He was presumably related to the imperial family in some way | 231–274 (aged 42–43)----His reign was completely dominated by Cao Shuang, Sima Yi and Sima Shi, the latter of which eventually deposed Cao Fang. Died of natural causes | |
| Cao Mao Chinese: 曹髦 | Duke of Gaogui District Chinese: 高貴鄉公 | 2 November 254 – 2 June 260 | The cousin of Cao Fang and grandson of Cao Pi. Put on the throne by Sima Shi | – 9 July 260 (aged 18–19)----His reign was completely dominated by Sima Shi and Sima Zhao. Died in a failed coup to regain power from Sima Zhao | |
| Cao Huan Chinese: 曹奐 | Emperor Yuan Chinese: 元皇帝 | 27 July 260 – 4 February 266 | Grandson of Cao Cao and the first cousin once-removed of Cao Mao | 245–302 (aged 56–57)----His reign was completely dominated by Sima Zhao and Sima Yan. Died of natural causes |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Bei Chinese: 劉備 | Emperor Zhaolie Chinese: 昭烈皇帝 | 15 May 221 – 10 June 223 | Claimed to descend from Emperor Jing of Han. Conquered the Yi Province to found the Shu Han state | 161 – 10 June 223 (aged 61–62)----Died of natural causes | |
| Liu Shan Chinese: 劉禪 | Emperor Xiaohuai Chinese: 孝懷皇帝 | June 223 – December 263 | The son of Liu Bei | 207–271 (aged 63–64)----Abdicated after the fall on the Shu capital of Chengdu in 263. |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sun Quan Chinese: 孫權 | Emperor Da Chinese: 大皇帝 | 23 May 229 – May 252 | The son of Sun Jian; inherited the conquests of his brother Sun Ce. Proclaimed "King of Wu" in 221 and later "Emperor" in 229 | 182–252 (aged 69–70)----Died of natural causes | |
| Sun Liang Chinese: 孫亮 | Emperor Fei Chinese: 吳廢帝 | May 252 – 9 November 258 | Son of Sun Quan | 243–260 (aged 16–17)----His reign was completely dominated by three successive regents: Zhuge Ke, Sun Jun and Sun Chen. He was later deposed and died of natural causes | |
| Sun Xiu Chinese: 孫休 | Emperor Jing Chinese: 景皇帝 | 30 November 258 – 3 September 264 | Son of Sun Quan | 235–264 (aged 28–29)----Died of natural causes | |
| Sun Hao Chinese: 孫皓 | Emperor Mo Chinese: 末帝 | 3 September 264 – 1 May 280 | Son of Sun He, former heir apparent to Sun Quan | 241–283 (aged 41–42)----Eastern Wu was conquered by Sima Yan in 280. Died of natural causes |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Western Jin (266–316) | |||||
| Emperor Wu Chinese: 晉武帝 | Sima Yan Chinese: 司馬炎 | 8 February 266 – 16 May 290 | Son of Prince Sima Zhao, proclaimed emperor after the abdication of Cao Huan of Wei. He unified China after conquering Eastern Wu in 280 | 236–290 (aged 53–54)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Hui Chinese: 晉惠帝 | Sima Zhong Chinese: 司馬衷 | 16 May 290 – 8 January 307 | Son of Emperor Wu, ruled under the regency of his wife, Jia Nanfeng, until her death in 300 CE | 259–307 (aged 47–48)----Possibly mentally unstable, his reign was marked by the disastrous War of the Eight Princes. He was poisoned by Sima Yue | |
| — | Sima Lun Chinese: 司馬倫 | 3 February – 30 May 301 | Prince of Zhou and son of Sima Yi, briefly usurped power from Emperor Hu | One of the infamous Eight Princes; often seen as an usurper. He was forced to commit suicide by Princes Jiong, Ying and Yong | |
| Emperor Huai Chinese: 晉懷帝 | Sima Chi Chinese: 司馬熾 | 8 January 307 – 14 March 311 | Younger brother of Emperor Hui | 284–313 (aged 30–31)----His reign, dominated by Sima Yue, saw widespread ethnic rebellions. He was deposed and killed by the Han-Zhao | |
| Emperor Min Chinese: 晉愍帝 | Sima Ye Chinese: 司馬鄴 | 14 March 313 – 7 February 316 | Nephew of Emperor Huai, proclaimed emperor in Chang'an after the fall of Luoyang to the Five Barbarians. | 300 – 7 February 316 (aged 15–16)----Killed by Liu Cong of Han-Zhao | |
Eastern Jin (318–420) | |||||
| Emperor Yuan Chinese: 晉元帝 | Sima Rui Chinese: 司馬睿 | 26 April 318 – 3 January 323 | Great-grandson of Sima Yi, proclaimed himself emperor with the help of Wang Dun in Jiankang after the fall of Chang'an. | 276 – 323 (aged 47)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Ming Chinese: 晉明帝 | Sima Shao Chinese: 司馬紹 | 3 January 323 – 18 October 325 | Son of Emperor Yuan | 299 – 325 (aged 26)----His reign was dominated by Wang Dao and antagonized by Wang Dun. Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Cheng Chinese: 晉成帝 | Sima Yan Chinese: 司馬衍 | 19 October 325 – 26 July 342 | Son of Emperor Ming, ruled initially under the regency of Yu Wenjun | 321 – 342 (aged 21)----Dominated by Yu Liang, he was briefly deposed in 328 by rebel Su Jun. Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Kang Chinese: 晉康帝 | Sima Yue Chinese: 司馬岳 | 27 July 342 – 17 November 344 | Son of Emperor Ming | 322 – 344 (aged 22)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Mu Chinese: 晉穆帝 | Sima Dan Chinese: 司馬聃 | 18 November 344 – 10 July 361 | Son of Emperor Kang, "ruled" under the regency of Empress Dowager Chu until 357 | 343 – 361 (aged 18)----The youngest Chinese emperor. Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Ai Chinese: 晉哀帝 | Sima Pi Chinese: 司馬丕 | 13 July 361 – 30 March 365 | Son of Emperor Cheng, reigned alongside Empress Dowager Chu | 341 – 365 (aged 24)----Died of drug poisoning | |
| none, known as: Emperor Fei Chinese: 晉廢帝 | Sima Yi Chinese: 司馬奕 | 31 March 365 – 6 January 372 | Son of Emperor Cheng | 342 – 386 (aged 44)----Deposed by Huan Wen, later dying of natural causes | |
| Emperor Jianwen Chinese: 晉簡文帝 | Sima Yu Chinese: 司馬昱 | 6 January – 19 August 372 | Son of Emperor Yuan and great-great-grandson of Sima Yi, enthroned by Huan Wen | 320 – 372 (aged 52)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Xiaowu Chinese: 晉孝武帝 | Sima Yao Chinese: 司馬曜 | 19 August 372 – 6 November 396 | Son of Emperor Jianwen | 362 – 396 (aged 34)----His army's defeat of the Former Qin army at the Battle of Fei River led to the eventual collapse of the Former Qin. Killed by a jealous concubine | |
| Emperor An Chinese: 晉安帝 | Sima Dezong Chinese: 司馬德宗 | 7 November 396 – 28 January 419 | Son of Emperor Xiaowu | 382/3 – 419 (aged 36–37)----Dominated by Sima Daozi, Huan Xuan and Liu Yu, he was killed by the latter | |
| Emperor Gong Chinese: 晉恭帝 | Sima Dewen Chinese: 司馬德文 | 28 January 419 – 5 July 420 | Son of Emperor Xiaowu | 386 – 12 November 421 (aged 35)----Abdicated in favor of Liu Yu (Emperor Wu of Song), later assassinated | |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Xiong Chinese: 李雄 | Emperor Wu Chinese: 武皇帝 | 304–334 (years) | Son of rebel Li Te, proclaimed himself King in 304 and then Emperor in 306 | 274–334 (aged 59–60)----Died of disease | |
| Li Ban Chinese: 李班 | Emperor Ai Chinese: 哀皇帝 | 334 (less than a year) | Nephew of Li Xiong | 274–334 (aged 59–60)----Killed by Li Qi | |
| Li Qi Chinese: 李期 | Duke You Chinese: 幽公 | 334–338 (years) | Son of Li Xiong | 314–338 (aged 23–24)----Committed suicide | |
| Li Shou Chinese: 李壽 | Emperor Xiaowen Chinese: 昭文皇帝 | 338–343 (years) | Nephew of Li Te, usurped power from Li Qi and renamed the state from "Cheng” to “Han” | 300–343 (aged 42–43)----Died of natural causes | |
| Li Shi Chinese: 李勢 | Marquess of Guiyi Chinese: 歸義侯 | 343–347 (years) | Son of Li Shou | Abdicated to Huan Wen after the fall of Cheng in 347. Died of natural causes in 361 in the Eastern Jin capital |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Yuan Chinese: 劉淵 | Emperor Guangwen Chinese: 光文皇帝 | 304–310 (years) | Rebelled against the Jin dynasty. Proclaimed himself King of Han in 304 and Emperor in 308 | 250–310 (aged approx. 60)----Died of natural causes | |
| Liu He Chinese: 劉和 | – | 310 (less than a year) | Son of Liu Yuan | Killed by his brother Liu Cong | |
| Liu Cong Chinese: 劉聰 | Emperor Zhaowu Chinese: 昭武皇帝 | 310–318 (years) | Son of Liu Yuan | Died of natural causes in 318 | |
| Liu Can Chinese: 劉粲 | Emperor Yin Chinese: 隱皇帝 | 318 (less than a year) | Son of Liu Cong | Killed by officer Jin Zhun in 318 | |
| Liu Yao Chinese: 劉曜 | – | 318–329 (years) | Nephew of Liu Yuan, changed the dynastic title from "Han" to "Zhao" | Ended the Western Jin in 316. Captured and killed by Shi Le of Later Zhao |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shi Le Chinese: 石勒 | Emperor Ming Chinese: 明皇帝 | 319–333 (years) | Rebelled with Ji Sang during the War of the Eight Princes. Proclaimed himself King of Zhao in 319 and then Emperor in 330 | 374–333 (aged 58–59)----Ended the Former Zhao in 329. Died of natural causes | |
| Shi Hong Chinese: 石弘 | – | 333–334 (years) | Son of Shi Le | 313–334 (aged 20–21)----Deposed and killed by Shi Hu | |
| Shi Hu Chinese: 石虎 | Emperor Wu Chinese: 武皇帝 | 334–349 (years) | Nephew of Shi Le, usurped power from Shi Hong in 334. Ruled as Heavenly King until 349 | 295–349 (aged 53–54)----Died of natural causes | |
| Shi Shi Chinese: 石世 | – | 349 (less than a year) | Son of Shi Hu | 339–349 (aged 9–10)----Murdered | |
| Shi Zun Chinese: 石遵 | – | 349 (less than a year) | Son of Shi Hu | Killed by Ran Min | |
| Shi Jian Chinese: 石鑒 | – | 349–350 (years) | Son of Shi Hu, enthroned by Ran Min | Killed by Ran Min | |
| Shi Zhi Chinese: 石祇 | – | 350–351 (years) | Son of Shi Hu | Gave up the imperial title in 351, later killed by a subordinate officer |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhang Mao Chinese: 張茂 | Duke Cheng Chinese: 成公 | 320–324 (years) | Son of governor Zhang Gui | 377–324 (aged 52–53)----Made vassal of Former Zhao in 323. Died of natural causes | |
| Zhang Jun Chinese: 張駿 | Duke Zhongcheng Chinese: 忠成公 | 324–346 (years) | Son of governor Zhang Shi | 307–346 (aged 38–39)----Died of natural causes | |
| Zhang Chonghua Chinese: 張重華 | Duke Huan Chinese: 桓公 | 346–353 (years) | Son of Zhang Jun, didn't assume the dynastic title until 349 | 327–353 (aged 25–26)----Died of natural causes | |
| Zhang Yaoling Chinese: 張曜靈 | Duke Ai Chinese: 哀公 | 353 (less than a year) | Son of Zhang Chonghua | 344–355 (aged 25–26)----Killed by Zhang Zuo | |
| Zhang Zuo Chinese: 張祚 | King Wei Chinese: 威王 | 354–355 (years) | Son of Zhang Jun | Discontinued the use of Western Jin era names before being killed in 355 | |
| Zhang Xuanjing Chinese: 張玄靚 | Duke Chong Chinese: 沖公 | 355–363 (years) | Son of Zhang Chonghua | 350–363 (aged 12–13)----Killed by Zhang Tianxi | |
| Zhang Tianxi Chinese: 張天錫 | Duke Dao Chinese: 沖公 | 363–376 (years) | Son of Zhang Jun | 346–406 (aged 59–60)----Surrendered to the Former Qin, later dying of natural causes in Eastern Jin |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Murong Huang Chinese: 慕容皝 | Emperor Wenming Chinese: 文明皇帝 | 337–348 (years) | Son of governor Murong Hui, proclaimed himself Prince of Yan in 337. Remained loyal to the Jin | 297–348 (aged 50–51)----Died of natural causes | |
| Murong Jun Chinese: 慕容儁 | Emperor Jingzhao Chinese: 景昭皇帝 | 348–360 (years) | Son of Murong Huang, proclaimed himself Emperor in 352 | 319–360 (aged 38–39)----Died of natural causes | |
| Murong Wei Chinese: 慕容暐 | Emperor You Chinese: 幽皇帝 | 360–370 (years) | Son of Murong Jun, ruled under the regency of Murong Ping | 350–384 (aged 33–34)----Captured by Former Qin in 370, executed by Fu Jiān in 384 after a failed coup |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fu Jiàn Chinese: 苻健 | Emperor Jingming Chinese: 景明皇帝 | 351–355 (years) | Son of Prince Hong, leader of the Di. Proclaimed Heavenly King and Great Chanyu after Hong's murder in 351, became Emperor in 352 | 307 or 317–355 (aged 48 or 38)----Died of natural causes | |
| Fu Sheng Chinese: 苻生 | Prince Li Chinese: 厲王 | 355–357 (years) | Son of Fu Jiàn | 335–357 (aged 22)----Killed by his cousin | |
| Fu Jiān Chinese: 苻堅 | Emperor Xuanzhao Chinese: 宣昭皇帝 | 357–385 (years) | Grandson of Fu Hong, ruled as Heavenly King | 338–385 (aged 47)----Conquered Former Yan, Former Liang, and Dai. Killed by Yao Chang. | |
| Fu Pi Chinese: 苻丕 | Emperor Aiping Chinese: 哀平皇帝 | 385–386 (years) | Son of Fu Jiān | Defeated by Murong Yong of Western Yan, later killed by the Eastern Jin army | |
| Fu Deng Chinese: 苻登 | Emperor Gao Chinese: 高皇帝 | 386–394 (years) | Grandnephew of Fu Jiān | 343–394 (aged 51)----Killed by Yao Xing of Later Qin | |
| Fu Chong Chinese: 苻崇 | – | 394 (less than a year) | Son of Fu Deng | Killed by Qifu Qiangui of Western Qin |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Murong Chui Chinese: 慕容垂 | Emperor Wucheng Chinese: 成武皇帝 | 384–396 (years) | Son of Prince Murong Huang of Former Yan, reestablished his kingdom after the Battle of Fei River | 326–396 (aged 70)----Conquered Western Yan in 394 | |
| Murong Bao Chinese: 慕容寶 | Emperor Huimin Chinese: 惠愍皇帝 | 396–398 (years) | Son of Murong Chui | 355–398 (aged 43)----Killed by the usurper Lan Han | |
| Murong Sheng Chinese: 慕容盛 | Emperor Zhaowu Chinese: 昭武皇帝 | 398–401 (years) | Son of Murong Bao, came to power after killing Lan Han | 373–401 (aged 28)----Killed by general Duan Ji | |
| Murong Xi Chinese: 慕容熙 | Emperor Zhaowen Chinese: 昭文皇帝 | 401–407 (years) | Son of Murong Chui | 385–407 (aged 22)----Killed by Feng Ba |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yao Chang Chinese: 姚萇 | Emperor Wuzhao Chinese: 武昭皇帝 | 384–393 (years) | Proclaimed King after the Battle of Fei River, then Emmperor after killing Fu Jiān of Former Qin | 343–394 (aged 51)----Died of natural causes | |
| Yao Xing Chinese: 姚興 | Emperor Wenhuan Chinese: 文桓皇帝 | 394–416 (years) | Son of Yao Chang | 366–416 (aged 50)----Conquered Former Qin and Later Liang. Favored Buddhism and Taoism. | |
| Yao Hong Chinese: 姚泓 | – | 416–417 (years) | Son of Yao Xing | 388–417 (aged 29)----Executed by the Eastern Jin |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qifu Guoren Chinese: 乞伏國仁 | Prince Xuanlie Chinese: 宣烈王 | 385–388 (years) | Former general of Former Qin | Died of natural causes | |
| Qifu Gangui Chinese: 乞伏乾歸 | Prince Wuyuan Chinese: 武元王 | 388–412 (years) | Younger brother of Qifu Guoren | Surrendered to Later Qin in 400, reclaimed the throne in 409. Killed by his nephew | |
| Qifu Chipan Chinese: 乞伏熾磐 | Prince Wenzhao Chinese: 文昭王 | 412–428 (years) | Son of Qifu Gangui | Conquered Southern Liang in 414 | |
| Qifu Mumo Chinese: 乞伏暮末 | – | 428–431 (years) | Son of Qifu Chipan | Killed by the Xia |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lü Guang Chinese: 呂光 | Emperor Yiwu Chinese: 懿武皇帝 | 386–399 (years) | Former general of Former Qin, proclaimed himself Duke of Jiuquan in 386 and Heavenly King in 396 | 337–399 (aged 19)----Abdicated in favor of his son | |
| Lü Shao Chinese: 呂紹 | Prince Yin Chinese: 隱王 | 399 (less than a year) | Son of Lü Guang | Forced to commit suicide by his brother | |
| Lü Zuan Chinese: 呂纂 | Emperor Ling Chinese: 靈皇帝 | 399–401 (years) | Son of Lü Guang | Killed by Lü Chao, Guang's nephew | |
| Lü Long Chinese: 呂隆 | – | 401–403 (years) | Nephew of Lü Guang | Killed by Yao Hong of Later Qin |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tufa Wugu Chinese: 禿髮烏孤 | Prince Wu Chinese: 武王 | 397–399 (years) | Proclaimed himself Great Chanyu | Died of natural causes | |
| Tufa Lilugu Chinese: 禿髮利鹿孤 | Prince Kang Chinese: 康王 | 399–402 (years) | Elder brother of Tufa Wugu | Died of natural causes | |
| Tufa Rutan Chinese: 禿髮傉檀 | Prince Jing Chinese: 景王 | 402–414 (years) | Elder brother Tufa Lilugu | 364–415 (aged 51)----Captured and killed by Western Qin |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Duan Ye Chinese: 段業 | – | 397–401 (years) | Governor of Later Liang, proclaimed himself Prince of Liang in 397 | Killed by Juqu Mengxun | |
| Juqu Mengxun Chinese: 沮渠蒙遜 | – | 401–433 (years) | Former ally of Duan Ye, proclaimed himself Duke of Zhangye | Conquered Western Liang in 421 | |
| Juqu Mujian Chinese: 沮渠牧犍 | Prince Ai Chinese: 哀王 | 433–439 (years) | Son of Juqu Mengxun | Defeated by Northern Wei, later forced to commit suicide in 449 for sedition |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Murong De Chinese: 慕容德 | Emperor Xianwu Chinese: 武昭皇帝 | 398–405 (years) | Younger brother of Murong Chui of Later Yan, declared himself Prince in 398 and then Emperor in 400 | 336–405 (aged 69)----Captured and killed by Western Qin | |
| Murong Chao Chinese: 慕容超 | – | 405–410 (years) | Uncertain succession | 385–410 (aged 25)----Captured and killed by Eastern Jin |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Gao Chinese: 李暠 | Prince Wuzhao Chinese: 武昭王 | 400–417 (years) | Governor of Dunhuang under Duan Ye of Northern Liang, declared himself Duke | 351–417 (aged 66)----Died of natural causes | |
| Li Xin Chinese: 李歆 | – | 417–420 (years) | Son of Li Gao | Killed by Juqu Mengxun of Northern Liang | |
| Li Xun Chinese: 李恂 | – | 420–421 (years) | Son of Li Gao | Committed suicide after the fall of Dunhuang |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Helian Bobo Chinese: 赫連勃勃 | Emperor Wulie Chinese: 武烈皇帝 | 407–425 (years) | Subordinate of Yao Xing of Later Qin, declared himself Heavenly King in 407 and then Emperor at Chang'an in 418 | 381–425 (aged 44)----Died of natural causes | |
| Helian Chang Chinese: 赫連昌 | – | 425–428 (years) | Son of Helian Bobo | Executed by Northern Wei in 434 | |
| Helian Ding Chinese: 赫連定 | – | 428–431 (years) | Son of Helian Bobo | Executed by Tuyuhun in 432 |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gao Yun Chinese: 高雲 | Emperor Huiyi Chinese: 惠懿皇帝 | 407–409 (years) | Adopted son of Murong Bao or Later Yan, proclaimed Heavenly King by Feng Ba | Killed by his underlings | |
| Feng Ba Chinese: 馮跋 | Emperor Wencheng Chinese: 文成皇帝 | 409–430 (years) | Seized power after Yun's death | Died of natural causes | |
| Feng Hong Chinese: 馮弘 | Emperor Zhaocheng Chinese: 昭成皇帝 | 430–436 (years) | Younger brother of Feng Ba | Defeated by Northern Wei, later murdered in Goguryeo |
See main article: List of emperors of China's Northern Dynasties.
| + Northern Wei (北魏; 386–535) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Daowu Chinese: 道武皇帝 | Tuoba Gui Chinese: 拓拔珪 | 20 February 386 – 409 | Leader of the Tuoba, refounded the Dai State as Wei | 371–409 (aged 39)----Killed by his son Tuoba Shao | |
| Emperor Mingyuan Chinese: 明元皇帝 | Tuoba Si Chinese: 拓拔嗣 | 409–423 | Son of Emperor Daowu | 392–423 (aged 31)----Died of disease | |
| Emperor Taiwu Chinese: 太武皇帝 | Tuoba Tao Chinese: 拓拔燾 | 423–452 | Son of Emperor Mingyuan | 408–452 (aged 43–44)----Conquered Xia, Northern Yan and Liang. Killed by eunuch Zong Ai | |
| Tuoba Yu Chinese: 拓拔余 | Tuoba Yu Chinese: 拓拔余 | 452 | Son of Taiwu. Put on the throne by eunuch Zong Ai | Killed by Zong Ai | |
| Emperor Wencheng Chinese: 文成皇帝 | Tuoba Jun Chinese: 拓拔濬 | 452–465 | Grandson of Taiwu. Ascended to the throne after the murder of Zong. | 440–465 (aged 24–25)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Xianwen Chinese: 獻文皇帝 | Tuoba Hong Chinese: 拓拔弘 | 465–471 | Son of Wencheng | 454–476 (aged 21–22)----Abdicated in favor of his son Yuan Hong, later dying of natural causes | |
| Emperor Xiaowen Chinese: 孝文皇帝 | Tuoba Hong Chinese: 拓拔宏----Yuan Hong Chinese: 元宏 | 471–499 | Son of Xianwen, ruled under the regency of Empress Dowager Feng until 470. | 467–499 (aged 31–32)----One of the most significant reformers in medieval China. Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Xuanwu Chinese: 宣武皇帝 | Yuan Ke Chinese: 元恪 | 499–515 | Son of Xiaowen | 483–515 (aged 31–32)----His reign marked the decline of Wei | |
| Emperor Xiaoming Chinese: 孝明皇帝 | Yuan Xu Chinese: 元詡 | 515–528 | Son of Xuanwu | 510–528 (aged 17–18)----Killed in a power struggle against Empress Dowager Hu | |
| None, known as Youzhu of Northern Wei Chinese: 北魏幼主 | Yuan Zhao Chinese: 元釗 | 528 | Enthroned by Empress Dowager Hu | 526–528 (aged 2)----Killed by general Erzhu Rong | |
| Emperor Xiaozhuang Chinese: 孝莊皇帝 | Yuan Ziyou Chinese: 元子攸 | 528–530 | Enthroned by Erzhu Rong | 507–early 531 (aged 24)----Killed by general Erzhu Zhao | |
| Yuan Ye Chinese: 元曄 | Yuan Ye Chinese: 元曄 | 530–531 | Enthroned by the Erzhu Clan in opposition to Xiaozhuang | Executed in 532 | |
| Emperor Jiemin Chinese: 節閔皇帝 | Yuan Gong Chinese: 元恭 | 531–532 | Enthroned by Erzhu Shilong | 498–532 (aged 33–34)----Deposed and executed by Gao Huan | |
| Yuan Lang Chinese: 元朗 | Yuan Lang Chinese: 元朗 | 531–532 | Enthroned by Gao Huan | 513–532 (aged 19–18)----Deposed and executed by Gao Huan | |
| Emperor Xiaowu Chinese: 節閔皇帝 | Yuan Xiu Chinese: 元脩 | 532–535 | Enthroned by Gao Huan | 510–early 535 (aged 25)----Fled to Chang’an, where he was poisoned by Yuwen Tai of Northern Zhou |
| + Eastern Wei (东魏; 534–550) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Xiaojing Chinese: 孝靜皇帝 | Yuan Shanjian Chinese: 元善見 | 534–550 | Enthroned by Gao Huan | 524–552 (aged 27–28)----Forced to abdicate and later poisoned by Gao Yang |
| + Northern Qi (北齐; 550–577) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wenxuan Chinese: 文宣皇帝 | Gao Yang Chinese: 高洋 | 550–559 | Regent of Eastern Wei, proclaimed himself emperor after deposing Emperor Xiaojing | 529–559 (aged 29–30)----Supposedly suffered insanity in his late reign. Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Fei Chinese: 孝靜皇帝 | Gao Yin Chinese: 高殷 | 559–560 | Son of Emperor Wenxuan, enthroned by official Yang Yin | 545–561 (aged 15–16)----Forced to abdicate by his uncles Gao Yan and Gao Zhan, later executed | |
| Emperor Xiaozhao Chinese: 孝昭皇帝 | Gao Yan Chinese: 高演 | 560–561 | Son of Gao Huan, seized power through a palace coup | 535–559 (aged 25–26)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Wucheng Chinese: 武成皇帝 | Gao Zhan Chinese: 高湛 | 561–565 | Brother of Xiaozhao | 537–569 (aged 31–32)----Abdicated in favor of his son, later dying of natural causes | |
| Gao Wei Chinese: 高緯 | Gao Wei Chinese: 高緯 | 565–577 | Son of Wucheng, ruled under his father's regency until 569 | 557–577 (aged 19–20)----Abdicated in favor of his son, later killed by Northern Zhou | |
| Gao Heng Chinese: 高恆 | Gao Heng Chinese: 高恆 | 577 | Son of Gao Wei | 557–577 (aged 19–20)----Abdicated in favor of his uncle Gao Jie, but was soon killed alongside him |
| +Western Wei (西魏; 535–557) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wen Chinese: 文皇帝 | Yuan Baoyu Chinese: 元寶炬 | 535–551 | Grandson of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei | 507–551 (aged 43–44)----Killed by Yuwen Tai of Northern Zhou | |
| Emperor Fei Chinese: 廢帝 | Yuan Qin Chinese: 元欽 | 551–554 | Son of Emperor Wen, enthroned by Yuwen Tai | Poisoned to death by Yuwen Tai | |
| Emperor Gong Chinese: 恭皇帝 | Yuan Kuo Chinese: 元廓 | 554–556 | Son of Emperor Wen, enthroned by Yuwen Tai | 537–557 (aged 19–20)----Abdicated in favor of Yuwen Jue, Tai's son. Killed shortly after |
| + Northern Zhou (北周; 557–581) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Xiaomin Chinese: 孝閔皇帝 | Yuwen Jue Chinese: 宇文覺 | 557 | Son of Yuwen Tai, proclaimed himself Heavenly King under Yuwen Hu's patronage and refounded the Northern Wei State as Zhou | 542–557 (aged 14–15)----Poisoned to death after a failed coup against Yuwen Hu | |
| Emperor Ming Chinese: 明皇帝 | Yuwen Yu Chinese: 宇文毓 | 557–560 | Son of Yuwen Tai, ruled alongside Yuwen Hu | 534–560 (aged 25–26)----Poisoned to death by Yuwen Hu | |
| Emperor Wu Chinese: 武皇帝 | Yuwen Yong Chinese: 宇文邕 | 561–578 | Son of Yuwen Tai, sole ruler after deposing Yuwen Hu in 572 | 543–578 (aged 34–35)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Xuan Chinese: 宣皇帝 | Yuwen Yun Chinese: 宇文贇 | 578–579 | Son of Yuwen Yong | 559–580 (aged 34–35)----He neglected government and abdicated in favor of his son | |
| Emperor Jing Chinese: 靜皇帝 | Yuwen Yan Chinese: 宇文衍----Yuwen Chan Chinese: 宇文闡 | 579–581 | Son of Yuwen Yun | 573–581 (aged 7–8)----Killed by officer Yang Jian, the future Emperor Wen of Sui |
See main article: List of emperors of China's Southern Dynasties.
| + Liu Song dynasty (劉宋, 420–479) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wu Chinese: 武皇帝 | Liu Yu Chinese: 劉裕 | 420–422 (years) | Proclaimed himself emperor after defeating Huan Xuan of Jin in 404, conquering Southern Yan in 410 and taking Later Qin in 417. | 363–422 (aged 58–59)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Shao Chinese: 少帝 | Liu Yifu Chinese: 劉義符 | 422–424 (years) | Son of Emperor Wu | 406–424 (aged 17–18)----Killed by officer Xu Xianzhi | |
| Emperor Wen Chinese: 文皇帝 | Liu Yilong Chinese: 劉義隆 | 424–453 (years) | Son of Emperor Wu | 407–453 (aged 45–46)----Killed by his son | |
| Liu Shao Chinese: 劉劭 | Liu Shao Chinese: 劉劭 | 453 (less than a year) | Son of Emperor Wen | 426–453 (aged c. 27)----Killed by his brother | |
| Emperor Xiaowu Chinese: 孝武皇帝 | Liu Jun Chinese: 劉駿 | 453–464 (years) | Son of Emperor Wen | 430–464 (aged 13–14)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Qianfei Chinese: 前廢帝 | Liu Ziye Chinese: 劉子業 | 464–465 (years) | Son of Emperor Xiaowu | 449–465 (aged 15–16)----Killed in a conspiracy | |
| Emperor Ming Chinese: 明皇帝 | Liu Yu Chinese: 劉彧 | 466–472 (years) | Son of Emperor Wen | 439–472 (aged 15–16)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Houfei Chinese: 後廢帝 | Liu Yu Chinese: 劉昱 | 472–477 (years) | Son of Emperor Ming | 463–477 (aged 13–14)----Killed by Xiao Daocheng | |
| Emperor Shun Chinese: 順皇帝 | Liu Zhun Chinese: 劉準 | 477–479 (years) | Son of Emperor Ming, enthroned by Xiao Daocheng, the future Emperor Gao of Southern Qi | 467–479 (aged 13–14)----Killed by Xiao Daocheng |
| + Southern Qi (南齊; 479–502) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Gao Chinese: 高皇帝 | Xiao Daocheng Chinese: 蕭道成 | 479–482 (years) | Proclaimed himself emperor after overthrowing the Liu Song dynasty | 427–482 (aged 54–55)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Wu Chinese: 武皇帝 | Xiao Ze Chinese: 蕭賾 | 482–493 (years) | Son of Emperor Gao | 440–493 (aged 54–55)----Died of natural causes | |
| Prince of Yulin Chinese: 鬱林王 | Xiao Zhaoye Chinese: 蕭昭業 | 493–494 (years) | Grandson of Emperor Wu | 473–494 (aged 20–21)----Killed by Xiao Luan | |
| Xiao Zhaowen Chinese: 蕭昭文 | Xiao Zhaowen Chinese: 蕭昭文 | 494 (less than a year) | Younger brother of Xiao Zhaoye | 480–494 (aged 13–14)----Killed by Xiao Luan | |
| Emperor Ming Chinese: 明皇帝 | Xiao Luan Chinese: 蕭鸞 | 494–498 (years) | Nephew of Emperor Gao | 452–498 (aged 45–46)----Died of natural causes | |
| Marquess of Donghun Chinese: 東昏侯 | Xiao Baojuan Chinese: 蕭寶卷 | 498–501 (years) | Son of Xiao Luan | 483–501 (aged 17–18)----Killed by his underlings | |
| Emperor He Chinese: 和皇帝 | Xiao Baorong Chinese: 蕭寶融 | 501–502 (years) | Son of Xiao Luan, set up in Jiangling in opposition to his brother | 488–502 (aged 13–14)----Deposed and killed by Xiao Yan |
| + Liang dynasty (梁; 502–557) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wu Chinese: 武皇帝 | Xiao Yan Chinese: 蕭衍 | 502–549 (years) | Overthrew the Southern Qi | 464–549 (aged 85)----Imprisoned during the rebellion of Hou Jing, died of hunger | |
| Emperor Jianwen Chinese: 簡文皇帝 | Xiao Gang Chinese: 蕭綱 | 549–551 (years) | Son of Emperor Wu, enthroned by Hou Jing | 503–551 (aged 47–48)----Deposed and killed by Hou Jing | |
| None, known by his personal name | Xiao Dong Chinese: 蕭棟 | 551 (less than a year) | Grandson of Xiao Tong and great-grandson of Emperor Wu, enthroned by Hou Jing | 503–551 (aged 47–48)----Deposed by Hou Jing and killed by Xiao Yi | |
| Emperor Yuan Chinese: 元皇帝 | Xiao Yi Chinese: 蕭繹 | 552–555 (years) | Son of Wu. Sole ruler after defeating Hou Jing in 552 and Xiao Ji in 553. | 508–555 (aged 46–47)----Captured and killed by Western Wei | |
| Emperor Ming Chinese: 閔皇帝 | Xiao Yuanming Chinese: 蕭淵明 | 555 (less than a year) | Nephew of Wu, enthroned by official Wang Sengbian | Deposed by Chen Baxian, died of natural causes in 556 | |
| Emperor Jin Chinese: 敬皇帝 | Xiao Fangzhi Chinese: 蕭方智 | 555–557 (years) | Son of Yuan, enthroned by Chen Baxian | 543–558 (aged 14–15)----Deposed and killed by Chen Baxian |
| + Western Liang (西梁; 555–587) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Xuan Chinese: 宣皇帝 | Xiao Cha Chinese: 蕭詧 | 555–562 (years) | Son of Xiao Tong and grandson of Emperor Wu, enthroned by Western Wei | 519–562 (aged 42–43)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Ming Chinese: 武皇帝 | Xiao Kui Chinese: 蕭巋 | 562–585 (years) | Son of Xiao Cha | 542–585 (aged 42–43)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Jing Chinese: 豫章王 | Xiao Cong Chinese: 蕭琮 | 585–587 (years) | Son of Xiao Kui | Deposed by Emperor Wen of Sui in 587, died of natural causes 607 |
| + Chen dynasty(陳; 557–589) | |||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wu Chinese: 武皇帝 | Chen Baxian Chinese: 陳霸先 | 557–559 (years) | Overthrew the Liang Dynasty | 503–559 (aged 55–56)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Wen Chinese: 文皇帝 | Chen Qian Chinese: 陳蒨 | 559–566 (years) | Nephew of Chen Baxian | 522–566 (aged 43–44)----Died of natural causes | |
| Emperor Fei Chinese: 廢帝 | Chen Bozong Chinese: 陳伯宗 | 566–568 (years) | Son of Emperor Wen | 554–570 (aged 15–16)----Deposed by his uncle | |
| Emperor Xuan Chinese: 宣皇帝 | Chen Xu Chinese: 陳頊 | 569–582 (years) | Younger brother of Emperor Wen | 528–582 (aged 59–60)----Died of natural causes | |
| Chen Houzhu Chinese: 陳後主 | Chen Shubao Chinese: 陳叔寶 | 582–589 (years) | Son of Emperor Xuan | 553–604 (aged 50–51)----Neglect of government, he was captured by the Sui army. Died of natural causes |
| Portrait | Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wen Chinese: 文 | Yang Jian Chinese: 楊堅 | 4 March 581 – 13 August 604 | Son of Yang Zhong, Duke of Sui. Overthrew the Northern Zhou and conquered the other Chinese states | 21 July 541 – 13 August 604 (aged 63)----Instituted several institutional reforms and promoted Buddhism. Murdered by his son | ||
| Yang Chinese: 煬 | Yang Guang Chinese: 楊廣 | 21 August 604 – 11 April 618 | Son of Wen | 569 – 11 April 618 (aged 51)----Led several construction projects and military campaigns. Overthrown in a rebellion and killed by his underlings | ||
| Gong Chinese: 恭 | Yang You Chinese: 楊侑 | 18 December 617 – 12 June 618 | Grandson of Wen | 605 – 619 (aged 14)----A puppet of Li Yuan. Deposed and later executed | ||
See main article: List of emperors of the Tang dynasty.
| Portrait | Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Early Tang (618–690) | ||||||
| Gaozu Chinese: 高祖---- | Li Yuan Chinese: 李淵 | 18 June 618 – 4 September 626 | Son of Li Bing, Duke of Tang and officer of Northern Zhou. Claimed descent from Li Gao, founder of Western Liang | 566 – 25 June 635 (aged 69)----Abdicated in favor of his son following the Xuanwu Gate Incident. A fair and capable ruler, his reign is said to have started a golden age in Chinese history, although imperial propaganda often underestimated his reign to exalt that of his son | ||
| Taizong Chinese: 太宗---- | Li Shimin Chinese: 李世民 | 4 September 626 – 10 July 649 | Son of Gaozu; named heir after the murder of Crown Prince Li Jiancheng in the Xuanwu Gate Incident | 23 January 597/99 – 10 July 649 (aged 50–52)----Considered one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history, both as a conqueror and administrator. His reign saw a territorial expansion and economic growth not seen since the Han dynasty. Died after a period of prolonged illness, possibly due to alchemical elixir poisoning | ||
| Gaozong Chinese: 高宗---- | Li Zhi Chinese: 李治 | 15 July 649 – 27 December 683 | Son of Taizong | 20 July 628 – 27 December 683 (aged 55)----A well-meaning but ineffectual ruler, his reign was dominated by several successive regencies. Suffered a serious stroke in late 660, whereafter the government was run by his wife, the future Empress Wu Zetian. Died after several years of illness | ||
| Zhongzong Chinese: 中宗---- | Li Xian Chinese: 李顯 | 3 January 684 – 26 February 684 | Son of Gaozong and Wu Zetian | 26 November 656 – 3 July 710 (aged 53)----Deposed by his mother after challenging her authority | ||
| Ruizong Chinese: 睿宗---- | Li Dan Chinese: 李旦 | 27 February 684 – 16 October 690 | Son of Gaozong and Wu Zetian | 22 June 662 – 13 July 716 (aged 54)----A complete puppet of his mother; forced to abdicate | ||
Wu Zhou (690–705)See also: Wu Zhou. | ||||||
| none, known as Wu Zetian Chinese: 武則天---- | Wu Zhao Chinese: 武曌 | 16 October 690 – 21 February 705 | Former consort of emperors Taizong and Gaozong; regent since November 660, de facto ruler since January 683 | 623/625 – 12 December 706 (aged 81–83)----Only female sovereign in Chinese history. Notable for her contribution to the Imperial examination system and her support for Buddhism, but also for her violent methods of enforcement. Deposed by Zhang Jianzhi; died of natural causes | ||
Tang restoration (705–907) | ||||||
| Zhongzong (second reign) | Li Xian Chinese: 李顯 | 23 February 705 – 3 July 710 | Restored to the throne by Tang loyalists | 26 November 656 – 3 July 710 (aged 53)----A weak ruler; he died after eating a poisoned cake delivered by his wife, Empress Wei | ||
| none, known as Emperor Shang Chinese: 唐殤帝 | Li Chongmao Chinese: 李重茂 | 8 July 710 – 25 July 710 (17 days) | Son of Zhongzong; installed by Empress Wei | 698–714 (aged 16)----Second shortest-reigning emperor; deposed in a palace coup | ||
| Ruizong (second reign) | Li Dan Chinese: 李旦 | 25 July 710 – 8 September 712 | Restored to the throne by detractors of Empress Wei | 22 June 662 – 13 July 716 (aged 54)----Spent his reign in a constant power struggle with his sister, Princess Taiping. Abdicated in favor of his son to undermine her influence | ||
| Xuanzong Chinese: 玄宗---- | Li Longji Chinese: 李隆基 | 8 September 712 – 12 August 756 | Son of Ruizong | 8 September 685 – 3 May 762 (aged 76)----One of the greatest and longest reigning Chinese emperors. The Tang empire reached its peak during his early reign, but fell of grace at the end as a result of the disastrous An Lushan Rebellion. Abdicated in favor of his son | ||
| Suzong Chinese: 肅宗---- | Li Jun Chinese: 李浚 | 12 August 756 – 16 May 762 | Son of Xuanzong; proclaimed emperor in Lingwu | 711 – 16 May 762 (aged 51)----Recaptured Chang'an in November 757. During his reign the eunuchs grew increasingly powerful. | ||
| Daizong Chinese: 代宗---- | Li Chu Chinese: 李俶 | 18 May 762 – 10 June 779 | Son of Suzong; proclaimed emperor in Chang'an | 9 January 727 – 10 June 779 (aged 52)----Ended the An–Shi Rebellion, but failed to maintain control over the far provinces | ||
| Dezong Chinese: 德宗---- | Li Kuo Chinese: 李适 | 12 June 779 – 25 February 805 | Son of Daizong | 27 May 742 – 25 February 805 (aged 62)----Notable for his tax reforms, he also attempted to control regional jiedushi, but this backfired and caused a military mutiny in 783 | ||
| Shunzong Chinese: 順宗---- | Li Song Chinese: 李誦 | 28 February – 28 August 805 (6 months) | Son of Dezong | February 761 – 11 February 806 (aged 45)----Aphasic, weak and ill, he was urged to abdicate by the court eunuchs | ||
| Xianzong 憲宗---- | Li Chun Chinese: 李純 | 5 September 805 – 14 February 820 | Son of Shunzong | March 778 – 14 February 820 (aged 41)----Ended the warlord threat, but ended up becoming a puppet of the eunuchs. A drug addict, he was poisoned to death by eunuch Chen Hongzhi | ||
| Muzong 穆宗---- | Li Heng Chinese: 李恆 | 20 February 820 – 25 February 824 | Son of Xianzong | July 795 – 25 February 824 (aged 28)----Suffered a serious stroke in 822 (while playing polo), whereafter the government was run by eunuchs Wang Shoucheng and Li Fengji. | ||
| Jingzong 敬宗---- | Li Zhan Chinese: 李湛 | 29 February 824 – 9 January 827 | Son of Muzong | 22 July 809 – 9 January 827 (aged 17)----A reckless player of football; he was killed by eunuchs | ||
| Wenzong 文宗---- | Li Ang Chinese: 李昂 | 13 January 827 – 10 February 840 (13 years lacking 3 days) | Son of Muzong | 20 November 809 – 10 February 840 (aged 30)----Attempted to eradicate the eunuchs in the Sweet Dew incident (835), but ended up making them stronger. Died of natural causes | ||
| Wuzong 武宗---- | Li Yan Chinese: 李炎 | 20 February 840 – 22 April 846 (6 years, 2 months and 2 days) | Son of Muzong | 2 July 814 – 22 April 846 (aged 31)----Notable for his persecution of Buddhism. Died of drug overdose | ||
| Xuanzong 宣宗---- | Li Chen Chinese: 李忱 | 25 April 846 – 7 September 859 | Son of Xianzong | 27 July 810 – 7 September 859 (aged 49)----Arguably the last capable Tang emperor. Notable for his campaigns against the Tibetan Empire. Died of drug overdose | ||
| Yizong 懿宗---- | Li Cui Chinese: 李漼 | 13 September 859 – 15 August 873 | Son of Xuanzong | 28 December 833 – 15 August 873 (aged 39)----A devout Buddhist, but also a cruel and unstable ruler. His reign, which was dominated by eunuchs, saw various revolts that severely weakened imperial power | ||
| Xizong 僖宗---- | Li Xuan Chinese: 李儇 | 16 August 873 – 20 April 888 | Son of Yizong | 8 June 862 – 20 April 888 (aged 25)----A puppet of Tian Lingzi, had to flee Chang'an twice due to internal strife | ||
| None, known by his personal name | Li Yun Chinese: 李熅 | 31 October 886 – January 887 (3 months) | Great-grandson of Suzong, took power in Chang'an | Died in 887----Killed by Xizong's forces; often seen as an usurper | ||
| Zhaozong 昭宗---- | Li Ye Chinese: 李曄 | 20 April 888 – 22 September 904 | Son of Yizong | 31 March 867 – 22 September 904 (aged 37)----His reign saw the final collapse of imperial authority and the rise of new powerful warlords. He was killed by rebel Zhu Wen | ||
| better known as Emperor Ai Chinese: 唐哀帝---- | Li Zhu Chinese: 李柷 | 26 September 904 – 1 June 907 | Son of Zhaozong, proclaimed emperor in Luoyang | 27 October 892 – 25 March 908 (aged 15)----Installed, deposed, and later killed by Zhu Wen | ||
| + Later Liang (後梁; 907–923) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhu Wen Chinese: 朱溫 | Taizu Chinese: 太祖 | 907–912 (years) | Former ally of rebel Huang Chao, defected to the Imperial army in 882 but later betrayed the Tang and proclaimed himself Emperor in Kaifeng | 852–912 (aged 60)----Killed by his son | |
| Zhu Yougui Chinese: 朱友珪 | — | 912–913 (years) | Son of Zhu Wen, usurped power after learning of his father's intentions of adopting Zhu Youwen as heir | Died in 913----Described as murderous and lustful, he was killed by his brother | |
| Zhu Youzhen Chinese: 朱瑱 | — | 913–923 (years) | Son of Zhu Wen | 888–923 (aged 35)----Killed by the forces of Li Cunxu |
| +Later Tang (後唐; 923–937) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Cunxu Chinese: 李存勗 | Zhuangzong Chinese: 莊宗 | 923–926 (years) | Proclaimed himself Emperor after conquering Later Liang | 885–926 (aged 41)----Killed in a coup | |
| Li Siyuan Chinese: 李嗣源 | Mingzong Chinese: 明宗 | 926–933 (years) | Adopted son of Li Keyong, took Luoyang and proclaimed himself Emperor after the murder of Li Cunxu | 867–933 (aged 66)----Died of natural causes | |
| Li Conghou Chinese: 李從厚 | — | 934 (less than a year) | Son of Li Siyuan | 914–early 934 (aged 20)----Killed by Li Congke | |
| Li Congke Chinese: 李從珂 | — | 934–937 (years) | Adopted son of Li Siyuan, he usurped power from Li Conghou | 884/6–936 (aged 50–52)----Defeated by Shi Jingtang of Later Jin, he burned himself to death |
| + Later Jin (後晉; 936–947) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shi Jingtang Chinese: 石敬瑭 | Gaozu Chinese: 高祖 | 936–942 (years) | Proclaimed himself emperor with the help of the Shatuo and Khitan people | 892–942 (aged 50)----Died of natural causes | |
| Shi Chonggui Chinese: 石重貴 | — | 942–947 (years) | Nephew of Shi Jingtang | 914–947 (aged 33)----Captured by Emperor Taizong of Liao but spared; died of natural causes |
| + Later Han (後漢; 947–951) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Zhiyuan Chinese: 劉知遠 | Gaozu Chinese: 高祖 | 947–948 (years) | Jiedushi under the Later Jin, proclaimed himself emperor after the capture of Shi Chonggui by the Khitan | 895–948 (aged 53)----Died of natural causes | |
| Liu Chengyou Chinese: 劉承祐 | — | 948–951 (years) | Son of Liu Zhiyuan | 931–951 (aged 20)----Killed by the forces of Guo Wei |
| + Later Zhou (後周; 951–960) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Guo Wei Chinese: 郭威 | Taizu Chinese: 太祖 | 951–954 (years) | Officer of Later Han, proclaimed himself emperor and dethroned Liu Chengyou | 904–954 (aged 50)----Died of natural causes; introduced reforms that greatly benefited farming | |
| Chai Rong Chinese: 柴榮 | Shizong Chinese: 世宗 | 954–959 (years) | Adopted son of Guo Wei | 921–959 (aged 38)----Conquered Eastern and Southwest China; died of natural causes | |
| Chai Zongxun Chinese: 柴宗訓 | — | 959–960 (years) | Son of Chai Rong | 953–973 (aged 20)----Deposed by Emperor Taizu of Song |
| + Former Shu (前蜀; 907–925) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wang Jian Chinese: 王建 | Gaozu Chinese: 高祖 | 907–918 (years) | Rebelled against the Tang in 891, named Prince in 903 and later proclaimed himself emperor in 907 | 847–918 (aged 69)----Died of natural causes; known for his great tomb and stone statues | |
| Wang Zongyan Chinese: 王宗衍 | — | 918–925 (years) | Son of Wang Jian | 899–926 (aged 27)----Lustful and neglected of government, he was killed by Li Cunxu |
| + Yang Wu (楊吳; 907–937) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yang Xingmi Chinese: 楊行密 | Taizu Chinese: 太祖 | 902–905 (years) | Took over Yangzhou in 892 and was named "Prince of Wu" in 902, became independent after the fall of the Tang | 852–905 (aged 53)----Died of natural causes | |
| Yang Wo Chinese: 楊渥 | — | 905–908 (years) | Son of Yang Xingmi | 886–908 (aged 22)----Killed by Zhang Hao and Xu Wen | |
| Yang Longyan Chinese: 楊隆演 | — | 908–920 (years) | Son of Yang Xingmi, enthroned by Xu Wen | 897–920 (aged 23)----Died of natural causes | |
| Yang Pu Chinese: 楊溥 | — | 920–937 (years) | Son of Yang Xingmi and enthroned by Xu Zhigao (Li Bian), declared himself Emperor in 927 | 901–938 (aged 37)----Forced to abdicate to Li Bian of Southern Tang; died of natural causes |
| + Ma Chu (馬楚; 907–951) | |||||
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ma Yin Chinese: 馬殷 | Prince Wumu Chinese: 武穆王 | 907–930 (years) | A carpenter who rose from the ranks to become prefect of Tanzhou in 896, he was named Prince in 927 by Li Siyuan | 852–930 (aged 78)----Died of natural causes | |
| Ma Xisheng Chinese: 馬希聲 | Prince of Hengyang Chinese: 衡陽王 | 930–932 (years) | Son of Ma Yin | 899–932 (aged 33)----An admirer of Zhu Wen, he cooked 50 chickens a day; died of natural causes | |
| Ma Xifan Chinese: 馬希範 | Prince Wenzhao Chinese: 文昭王 | 932–947 (years) | Son of Ma Yin, didn't assume his title until later in his reign | 899–947 (aged 48)----Known for his extravagance and his building projects; died of natural causes | |
| Ma Xiguang Chinese: 馬希廣 | — | 947–951 (years) | Son of Ma Yin | Died in 951----Deposed and later killed by his brother | |
| Ma Xi'e Chinese: 馬希萼 | — | 951 (less than a year) | Son of Ma Yin | Deposed by his brother, fate unknown | |
| Ma Xichong Chinese: 馬希崇 | — | 951 (less than a year) | Son of Ma Yin | Deposed by the Southern Tang with the help of Xi’e's supporters, fate unknown |
| + Wuyue (吳越; 907–978) | |||||
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qian Liu Chinese: 錢鏐 | Prince Wusu Chinese: 武肅王 | 907–932 (years) | Named "Prince of Wuyue" by Later Liang | 852–932 (aged 80)----Died of natural causes | |
| Qian Yuanguan Chinese: 錢元瓘 | Prince Wensu Chinese: 文肅王 | 932–941 (years) | Son of Qian Liu | 887–941 (aged 54)----Died of natural causes | |
| Qian Hongzuo Chinese: 錢弘佐 | Prince Zhongxian Chinese: 忠獻王 | 941–947 (years) | Son of Qian Yuanguan | 928–947 (aged 69)----Died of natural causes | |
| Qian Hongzong Chinese: 錢弘倧 | Prince Zhongxun Chinese: 忠遜王 | 947–early 948 (years) | Son of Qian Yuanguan | 929– 971 (aged approx. 42)----Deposed by general Hu Jinsi, fate unknown | |
| Qian Chu Chinese: 錢俶 | Prince Zhongyi Chinese: 忠懿王 | 978 (less than a year) | Son of Qian Yuanguan | 929–988 (aged 59)----Surrendered to the Song dynasty, died of sudden illness or poisoning |
| + Min (閩; 909–944) & Yin (殷; 943–945) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wang Shenzhi Chinese: 王審知 | Taizu Chinese: 太祖 | 909–925 (years) | Younger brother of warlord Wang Chao, named wang of Min by Later Liang | 862–925 (aged 63)----One of the most peaceful reign periods of the period; died of natural causes | |
| Wang Yanhan Chinese: 王延翰 | — | 926–927 (years) | Son of Wang Shenzhi | Died in 927----Killed by his brother | |
| Wang Yanjun Chinese: 王延鈞 | Huizong Chinese: 惠宗 | 927–935 (years) | Son of Wang Shenzhi, proclaimed Prince in 928 and later Emperor in 933 | Died in 935----Killed by his son | |
| Wang Jipeng Chinese: 王繼鵬 Wang Chang Chinese: 王昶 | Kangzong Chinese: 康宗 | 935–939 (years) | Son of Wang Yanjun | Died in 939----A devout Taoist, he was killed in a coup | |
| Wang Yanxi Chinese: 王延羲 | Jingzong Chinese: 景宗 | 939–944 (years) | Son of Wang Shenzhi | Died in 944----A despotic ruler, he was killed by Lian Chongyu and his associates | |
| Wang Yanzheng Chinese: 王延政 | Gongyi Chinese: 恭懿王 | 945 (less than a year) | Proclaimed himself "Prince of Yin" to rival his brother Wang Yanxi | Died in 945----Defeated by Southern Tang, died of natural causes in captivity |
| + Great Yue (大越; 917–918) Southern Han (南漢; 918–971) | |||||
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Yan Chinese: 劉巖 | Gaozu Chinese: 高祖 | 917–942 (years) | Took over of Guangzhou in 911, proclaimed himself Emperor of Yue (renamed "Han" in 918) | 889–942 (aged 63)----A despotic and extravagant ruler; died of natural causes | |
| Liu Bin Chinese: 劉玢 | — | 942–943 (years) | Son of Liu Yan | 920–943 (aged 63)----An hedonistic ruler; he was killed by his brother | |
| Liu Sheng Chinese: 劉晟 | Zhongzong Chinese: 中宗 | 943–958 (years) | Son of Liu Yan | 920–958 (aged 38)----Died of natural causes | |
| Liu Chang Chinese: 劉鋹 | — | 958–971 (years) | Son of Liu Sheng | 943–980 (aged 37)----Another hedonistic ruler, he surrendered to the Song army and was spared |
| + Jingnan (荊南; 924–963) | |||||
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gao Jixing Chinese: 高季興 | — | 924–early 929 (years) | Named King of Nanping by Later Tang in 924, ruled under the vassalage of Wu | 858–929 (aged 71)----Died of natural causes | |
| Gao Conghui Chinese: 高從誨 | — | 929–948 (years) | Son of Gao Jixing | 891–948 (aged 57)----A weak ruler, he was nicknamed "Gao the Jerk" (高賴子); died of natural causes | |
| Gao Baorong Chinese: 高寶融 | — | 948–960 (years) | Son of Gao Conghui | 920–960 (aged 40)----Died of natural causes | |
| Gao Baoxu Chinese: 高寶勗 | — | 960–962 (years) | Son of Gao Conghui, effective ruler during the reign of his brother | 924–962 (aged 38)----Died of natural causes | |
| Gao Jichong Chinese: 高繼沖 | — | 962–963 (years) | Son of Gao Baorong | 943–973 (aged 30)----Surrendered to the Song but spared |
| + Later Shu (後蜀; 934–965) | |||||
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meng Zhixiang Chinese: 孟知祥 | Gaozu Chinese: 高祖 | 934 (less than a year) | Later Tang governor from 926, proclaimed King in 933 and later Emperor in 93 | 874–934 (aged 60)----Died of natural causes | |
| Meng Chang Chinese: 孟昶 | — | 934–965 (years) | Son of Meng Zhixiang | 919–965 (aged 60)----Defeated by the Song dynasty, died of natural causes |
| + Southern Tang (南唐; 937–976) | |||||
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Bian Chinese: 李昪 | Liezu Chinese: 烈祖 | 937–943 (years) | Adopted son of Xu Wen, proclaimed himself Emperor after overthrowing the Yang Wu | 888–943 (aged 55)----Died of natural causes | |
| Li Jing Chinese: 李璟 | Yuanzong Chinese: 元宗 | 943–961 (years) | Son of Li Bian | 888–943 (aged 55)----Conquered Min and Chu, but failed to ward the attacks of Later Zhou. A distinguished poet, he died of natural causes | |
| Li Yu Chinese: 李煜 | — | 961–976 (years) | Son of Li Jing | 937–978 (aged 41)----A master of the ci poetry, he surrendered to the Song dynasty but was spared |
| + Northern Han (北漢; 951–979) | |||||
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Chong Chinese: 劉崇 | Shizu Chinese: 世祖 | 951–954 (years) | Cousin of Liu Zhiyuan of Later Tang, proclaimed himself Emperor | 895–954 (aged 59)----Died of natural causes | |
| Liu Jun Chinese: 劉鈞 | Ruizong Chinese: 睿宗 | 954–968 (years) | Son of Liu Chong | 926–968 (aged 42)----Died of natural causes | |
| Liu Ji'en Chinese: 劉繼恩 | – | 968 (less than a year) | Adopted son of Liu Jun | 935–968 (aged 33)----Killed by Hou Barong | |
| Liu Jiyuan Chinese: 劉繼元 | Yingwu Chinese: 英武 | 968–979 (years) | Adopted son of Liu Jun | 956–991 (aged 35)----Surrendered to the Song and spared |
See main article: List of emperors of the Song dynasty.
| + Song dynasty (宋朝; 960–1279) | ||||||
| Portrait | Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Northern Song (960–1127) | ||||||
| Taizu Chinese: 太祖---- | Zhao Kuangyin Chinese: 趙匡胤 | 4 February 960 – 14 November 976 | Proclaimed emperor after deposing Chai Zongxun of Later Zhou. Unified most of China under his rule | 21 March 927 – 14 November 976 (aged 49)----Significantly reduced the power of the military in favor of civilian officers. Died in uncertain circumstances, probably illness | ||
| Taizong Chinese: 太宗---- | Zhao Jiong Chinese: 趙炅 | 14 November 976 – 8 May 997 | Younger brother of Taizu | 20 November 939 – 8 May 997 (aged 57)----Conquered the last remaining Chinese state in 978, but failed the reconquer former Tang territories, like Vietnam. Died of natural causes | ||
| Zhenzong Chinese: 真宗---- | Zhao Heng Chinese: 趙恆 | 8 May 997 – 23 March 1022 | Son of Taizong | 23 December 968 – 23 March 1022 (aged 53)----Suffered significant defeats to the northern Liao dynasty, leading to the Chanyuan Treaty. Died after a prolonged period of illness | ||
| Renzong Chinese: 仁宗---- | Zhao Zhen Chinese: 趙禎 | 23 March 1022 – 30 April 1063 | Son of Zhenzong | 30 May 1010 – 30 April 1063 (aged 52)----Ruled under the regency of Empress Liu until 1033. His long reign, the longest of the Song dynasty, saw several developments in culture, philosophy and arts | ||
| Yingzong Chinese: 英宗---- | Zhao Shu Chinese: 趙曙 | 1 May 1063 – 25 January 1067 | Son of Zhao Yunrang, a grandson of Emperor Taizong, and adopted son of Emperor Renzong | 16 February 1032 – 25 January 1067 (aged 34)----Ruled initially under the regency of Empress Dowager Cao. Died after several years of illness | ||
| Shenzong Chinese: 神宗---- | Zhao Xu Chinese: 趙頊 | 25 January 1067 – 1 April 1085 | Son of Yingzong | 25 May 1048 – 1 April 1085 (aged 36)----Best known by the implementation of the "New Policies". Died of illness | ||
| Zhezong Chinese: 哲宗---- | Zhao Xu Chinese: 趙煦 | 1 April 1085 – 23 February 1100 | Son of Shenzong | 4 January 1077 – 23 February 1100 (aged 23)----Ruled under the regency of Empress Dowager Gao until 1093. Died of illness | ||
| Huizong Chinese: 徽宗---- | Zhao Ji Chinese: 趙佶 | 23 February 1100 – 18 January 1126 | Son of Shenzong | 7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135 (aged 52)----A remarkable patron of the arts and an artist himself, but a weak ruler and politician. Abdicated during the Jurchen Jin siege of Kaifeng. Captured by the Jin shortly after; died in captivity | ||
| Qinzong Chinese: 欽宗---- | Zhao Huan Chinese: 趙桓 | 19 January 1126 – 25 March 1127 | Son of Huizong | 23 May 1100 – 14 June 1161 (aged 62)----Refused to negotiate with the Jin, which led to a second invasion. Captured alongside his father during the Jingkang incident; died in captivity | ||
Southern Song (1127–1279) | ||||||
| Gaozong Chinese: 高宗---- | Zhao Gou Chinese: 趙構 | 12 June 1127 – 24 July 1162 | Son of Huizong, proclaimed emperor in Jiankang after fleeing the Jurchen invasion of the North | 12 June 1107 – 9 November 1187 (aged 80)----A competent ruler that managed to preserve the Song dynasty, but often criticized for his military defeats and political failures. Abdicated in favor of his adopted son, later dying of natural causes | ||
| None, known by his personal name | Zhao Fu Chinese: 趙旉 | March – April 1129 (1 month or less) | Son of Gaozong, proclaimed emperor during a mutiny | An infant installed by officers Miao Fu and Liu Zhengyan. They lost power within a month | ||
| Xiaozong Chinese: 孝宗---- | Zhao Shen Chinese: 趙眘 | 24 July 1162 – 18 February 1189 | Son of Zhao Zicheng, a descendant of the first Song Emperor, and adopted son of Gaozong | 27 November 1127 – 28 June 1194 (aged 66)----Often regarded as the most peaceful and stable ruler of the Southern Song. Abdicated in favour of his son, later dying of natural causes | ||
| Guangzong Chinese: 光宗---- | Zhao Dun Chinese: 趙惇 | 18 February 1189 – 24 July 1194 | Son of Xiaozong | 30 September 1147 – 17 September 1200 (aged 53)----Forced to abdicate in favor of his son, allegedly because of his mental instability. Died of natural causes | ||
| Ningzong Chinese: 寧宗---- | Zhao Kuo Chinese: 趙擴 | 24 July 1194 – 17 September 1224 | Son of Guangzong | 19 November 1168 – 17 September 1224 (aged 66)----A weak and indecisive ruler who spent most of his life in isolation at the palace. Died of illness | ||
| Lizong Chinese: 理宗---- | Zhao Yun Chinese: 趙昀 | 17 September 1224 – 16 November 1264 | Son of Zhao Xilu, a descendant of the first Song Emperor, Taizu | 26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264 (aged 59)----An emperor devoted to philosophy and the arts, he had to face the first Mongol incursions following the fall of the Jin. Died of illness | ||
| Duzong Chinese: 度宗---- | Zhao Qi Chinese: 趙禥 | 16 November 1264 – 12 August 1274 | Son of Zhao Yurui, a brother of Lizong | 2 May 1240 – 12 August 1274 (aged 34)----Relegated most imperial duties to his officers. Died of sudden illness | ||
| Gongzong Chinese: 恭宗---- | Zhao Xian Chinese: 趙㬎 | 12 August 1274 – 21 February 1276 | Son of Duzong | 2 November 1270 – 1323----Ruled under the regency of Empress Xie, who was forced to surrender to the Mongols. Became a monk in Tibet, but was later executed of forced to commit suicide; died in Gansu | ||
| Duanzong Chinese: 端宗---- | Zhao Shi Chinese: 趙昰 | 14 June 1276 – 8 May 1278 | Son of Duzong, proclaimed emperor in Fuzhou after the fall of the capital | 1268 – 8 May 1278 (aged 10)----Spent most of his life fleeing from the Mongols by sea. Died of illness after barely surviving the sinking of his ship | ||
| None, known by his personal name | Zhao Bing Chinese: 趙昺 | 10 May 1278 – 19 March 1279 | Son of Duzong | 1271 – 19 March 1279 (aged 8)----Thrown into the Xi River during the Battle of Yamen alongside several soldiers and officers as part of a mass suicide | ||
See main article: List of emperors of the Liao dynasty.
| Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taizu Chinese: 太祖---- | Yelü Abaoji Chinese: 耶律阿保机 | 27 February 907 – 6 September 926 | Led the Yelü clan as Khagan to unite the Khitan people | 872 – 6 September 926 (aged)----Died of natural causes | |
| Taizong Chinese: 太宗---- | Yelü Deguang Chinese: 耶律德光 | 11 December 927 – 15 May 947 | Son of Taizu | 902 – 15 May 947 (aged)----Died from a sudden illness | |
| Shizong Chinese: 世宗---- | Yelü Ruan Chinese: 耶律阮 | 16 May 947 – 7 October 951 | Grandson of Taizu | 918 – 7 October 951 (aged)----Murdered by his cousin in a coup d'état | |
| Muzong Chinese: 穆宗---- | Yelü Jing Chinese: 耶律璟 | 11 October 951 – 12 March 969 | Son of Taizong | 931 – 12 March 969 (aged)----Killed by his personal attendants | |
| Jingzong Chinese: 景宗---- | Yelü Xian Chinese: 耶律贤 | 13 May 969 – 13 October 982 | Son of Shizong | 948 – 13 October 982 (aged)----Died of illness on a hunting trip | |
| Shengzong Chinese: 聖宗---- | Yelü Longxu Chinese: 耶律隆绪 | 14 October 982 – 25 June 1031 | Son of Jingzong | 971 – 25 June 1031 (aged)----Longest reigning Liao ruler, though he was controlled by his mother Xiao Yanyan until 1009. Died of natural causes | |
| Xingzong Chinese: 興宗---- | Yelü Zongzhen Chinese: 耶律宗真 | 25 June 1031 – 28 August 1055 | Son of Shengzong | 1016 – 28 August 1055 (aged)----Died of natural causes | |
| Daozong Chinese: 道宗---- | Yelü Hongji Chinese: 耶律洪基 | 28 August 1055 – 12 February 1101 | Son of Xingzong | 1032 – 12 February 1101 (aged)----Died of natural causes | |
| None, known by his posthumous name: Tianzuo Chinese: 天祚帝 | Yelü Yanxi Chinese: 耶律延禧 | 12 February 1101 – 6 September 1125 | Grandson of Daozong | 1075 – after 6 September 1125 (aged)----Died in captivity from natural causes |
| Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jingzong Chinese: 景宗---- | Li Yuanhao Chinese: 李元昊 | 1038 – 1048 (years) | Son of the Tangut leader Li Deming | 1003–1048 (aged)----Assassinated by his son, Ningling Ge | |
| Yizong Chinese: 毅宗---- | Li Liangzuo Chinese: 李諒祚 | 1048 – January 1068 (years) | Son of Jingzong | 1047 – January 1068 (aged)----Infant emperor whose reign was controlled by Lady Mozang and later Mozang Epang. Died of natural causes | |
| Huizong Chinese: 惠宗---- | Li Bingchang Chinese: 李秉常 | January 1068 – 21 August 1086 (years) | Son of Yizong | 1061 – 21 August 1086 (aged)----Struggled with his mother for power throughout his reign. Died of natural causes | |
| Chongzong Chinese: 崇宗---- | Li Qianshun Chinese: 李乾順 | 11 November 1086 – 1 July 1139 (years) | Son of Huizong | 1084 – 1 July 1139 (aged)----Died of natural causes | |
| Renzong Chinese: 仁宗---- | Li Renxiao Chinese: 李仁孝 | July 1139 – 16 October 1193 (years) | Son of Chongzong | 1124 – 16 October 1193 (aged)----Longest ruling ruler of the dynasty. Died of natural causes | |
| Huanzong Chinese: 桓宗---- | Li Chunyou Chinese: 李純佑 | 1193 – 1 March 1206 (years) | Son of Renzong | 1177 – 1 March 1206 (aged)----Overthrown in a coup d'état led by Xiangzong. Died of natural causes | |
| Xiangzong Chinese: 襄宗---- | Li Anquan Chinese: 李安全 | March 1206 – 13 September 1211 (years) | Grandson of Renzong | 1170 – 13 September 1211 (aged)----Suffered many losses from the Mongols. Died of natural causes | |
| Shenzong Chinese: 神宗---- | Li Zunxu Chinese: 李遵頊 | 12 August 1211 – 1223 (years) | Descendant of Jingzong | 1163 – 1226 (aged)----Abdicated amid Mongol invasions. Died of natural causes | |
| Xianzong Chinese: 獻宗 | Li Dewang Chinese: 李德旺 | 1223 – August 1226 (years) | Son of Shenzong | 1181 – August 1226 (aged)----Died of natural causes | |
| None, known by his personal name | Li Xian Chinese: 李晛 | 1226 – 1227 (1 year or less) | Grandson of Shenzong | ? – 1227 (aged ?)----Killed by the Mongols |
| Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taizu Chinese: 太祖---- | Wanyan Min Chinese: 完顏旻 | 28 January 1115 – 19 September 1123 | Son of Helibo from the Wanyan tribe | 1 August 1068 – 19 September 1123 (aged)----Conquered the Liao dynasty | |
| Taizong Chinese: 太宗---- | Wanyan Sheng Chinese: 完顏晟 | 27 September 1123 – 7 February 1135 | Brother of Taizu | 1075 – 7 February 1135 (aged)----Sacked the North Song dynasty's capital. Died of natural causes | |
| Xizong Chinese: 熙宗---- | Wanyan Dan Chinese: 完顏亶 | 8 February 1135 – 9 January 1150 | Grandson of Taizu | 1119 – 9 January 1150 (aged)----Assassinated by his chancellor and successor Wanyan Liang | |
| None, informally known as Prince of Hailing Chinese: 海陵王 | Wanyan Liang Chinese: 完顏亮 | 9 January 1150 – 15 December 1161 | Grandson of Taizu | 1122 – 15 December 1161 (aged)----Assassinated by his military commanders after losing the Battle of Caishi | |
| Shizong Chinese: 世宗---- | Wanyan Yong Chinese: 完顏雍 | 27 October 1161 – 20 January 1189 | Grandson of Taizu | 1123 – 20 January 1189 (aged)----Had the longest and most stable reign of the dynasty | |
| Zhangzong Chinese: 章宗---- | Wanyan Jing Chinese: 完顏璟 | 20 January 1189 – 29 December 1208 | Grandson of Shizong | 31 August 1168 – 29 December 1208 (aged)----Died of natural causes | |
| None, informally known as Prince Shao of Wei Chinese: 衛紹王 | Wanyan Yongji Chinese: 完顏永濟 | 29 December 1208 – 11 September 1213 | Son of Shizong | ? – 11 September 1213 (aged ?)----Assassinated under the orders of the general | |
| Xuanzong Chinese: 宣宗---- | Wanyan Xun Chinese: 完顏珣 | 22 September 1213 – 14 January 1224 | Grandson of Shizong | 1163 – 14 January 1224 (aged)----Suffered heavy losses from the Mongols. Died of natural causes | |
| Aizong Chinese: 哀宗 | Wanyan Shouxu Chinese: 完顏守緒 | 15 January 1224 – 8 February 1234 | Son of Xuanzong | 25 September 1198 – 9 February 1234 (aged)----Committed suicide amid Mongol invasions | |
| Mo Chinese: 末 | Wanyan Chenglin Chinese: 完顏承麟 | 9 February 1234 (less than a day) | Descendant of Helibo | ? – 9 February 1234 (aged ?)----The shortest reigning Chinese monarch, ruled for less than a day. Died during the Mongol conquest of the Jin |
See main article: List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty.
| Portrait | Khan name< | ----> | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Setsen Khan Chinese: 薛禪汗 better known as Kublai Khan---- | Borjigin Kublai Chinese: 孛兒只斤忽必烈 | 18 December 1271 – 18 February 1294 | Grandson of Genghis Khan; declared emperor after defeating the Song in the Battle of Yamen | 23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294 (aged)----Fully conquered the Song dynasty, won the Toluid Civil War, moved the capital to Khanbaliq and employed Marco Polo | ||
| Öljeytü Khan Chinese: 完澤篤汗---- | Borjigin Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤鐵穆耳 | 10 May 1294 – 10 February 1307 | Grandson of Kublai | 15 October 1265 – 10 February 1307 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| Külüg Khan Chinese: 曲律汗---- | Borjigin Haishan Chinese: 孛兒只斤海山 | 21 June 1307 – 27 January 1311 | Great-grandson of Kublai | 4 August 1281 – 27 January 1311 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| Buyantu Khan Chinese: 普顏篤汗---- | Borjigin Ayurbarwada Chinese: 孛兒只斤愛育黎拔力八達 | 7 April 1311 – 1 March 1320 | Great-grandson of Kublai | 9 April 1285 – 1 March 1320 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| Gegeen Khan Chinese: 格堅汗---- | Borjigin Shidibala Chinese: 孛兒只斤硕德八剌 | 19 April 1320 – 4 September 1323 | Son of Ayurbarwada | 22 February 1302 – 4 September 1323 (aged)----Killed in a coup led by | ||
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Yesün Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤也孫鐵木兒 | 4 October 1323 – 15 August 1328 | Great-Grandson of Kublai | 28 November 1293 – 15 August 1328 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Ragibagh Chinese: 孛兒只斤阿速吉八 | October 1328 – 14 November 1328 | Son of Yesün | 1320 – 14 November 1328 (aged)----Child emperor; probably murdered amid the War of the Two Capitals | ||
| Jayaatu Khan Chinese: 札牙篤汗---- | Borjigin Tugh Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤圖帖睦爾 | 16 October 1328 – 26 February 1329 | Son of Külüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged)----Abdicated in favor of his brother Khutughtu Khan | ||
| Khutughtu Khan Chinese: 忽都篤汗---- | Borjigin Kusala Chinese: 孛兒只斤和世剌 | 27 February 1329 – 30 August 1329 | Son of Külüg | 22 December 1300 – 30 August 1329 (aged)----Briefly ruled before killed by El Temür | ||
| Jayaatu Khan Chinese: 札牙篤汗 (second reign) | Borjigin Tugh Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤圖帖睦爾 | 8 September 1329 – 2 September 1332 | Son of Külüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged)----A patron of the arts and scholarship, his reign was dominated by the ministers El Temür and Bayan of the Merkid. Died of natural causes | ||
| None, known by his personal name---- | Borjigin Rinchinbal Chinese: 孛兒只斤懿璘質班 | 23 October 1332 – 14 December 1332 | Son of Khutughtu | 1 May 1326 – 14 December 1332 (aged)----Child emperor; died of sudden illness | ||
| Ukhaghatu Khan Chinese: 烏哈噶圖汗---- | Borjigin Toghon Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤妥懽帖睦爾 | 19 July 1333 – 10 September 1368 | Son of Khutughtu | 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370 (aged)----Died of natural causes |
See main article: List of emperors of the Ming dynasty.
| + Ming dynasty (大明; 1368–1644) | ||||||
| Portrait | Era name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hongwu Chinese: 洪武---- | Zhu Yuanzhang Chinese: 朱元璋 | 23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398 | Born into poverty, he led the Red Turban Rebellions to establish the Ming dynasty | 21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398 (aged)----Initiated cultural reconstruction and political reform, also noted for his extreme and violent methods of enforcement. Died of natural causes | ||
| Jianwen Chinese: 建文---- | Zhu Yunwen Chinese: 朱允炆 | 30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402 | Grandson of Hongwu | 5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402 (aged)----Overthrown by the future Yongle Emperor, his uncle. Either died in or disappeared after the fires in the Ming Palace. | ||
| Yongle Chinese: 永樂---- | Zhu Di Chinese: 朱棣 | 17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424 | Son of Hongwu | 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424 (aged)----Raised the Ming to its highest power. Patron of many projects, including the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, Yongle Encyclopedia and the Ming treasure voyages. Died of natural causes. | ||
| Hongxi Chinese: 洪熙---- | Zhu Gaochi Chinese: 朱高熾 | 7 September 1424 – 29 May 1425 | Son of Yongle | 16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425 (aged)----Focused primarily on domestic affairs. Died of natural causes | ||
| Xuande Chinese: 宣德---- | Zhu Zhanji Chinese: 朱瞻基 | 27 June 1425 – 31 January 1435 | Son of Hongxi | 16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435 (aged)----A noted painter. Died of natural causes | ||
| known by his temple: Yingzong Chinese: 英宗---- | Zhu Qizhen 朱祁镇 | 7 February 1435 – 1 September 1449 | Son of Xuande | 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 (aged)----His reign was dominated by eunuchs, particularly Wang Zhen, which led to growing instability. Captured by the Northern Yuan dynasty during the Tumu Crisis. | ||
| Jingtai Chinese: 景泰---- | Zhu Qiyu Chinese: 朱祁鈺 | 22 September 1449 – 24 February 1457 | Son of Xuande | 11 September 1428 – 14 March 1457 (aged)----Briefly ruled while his brother was held captive; deposed soon after. Died a month later, possibly from murder. | ||
| Yingzong Chinese: 英宗 (second reign) | Zhu Qizhen 朱祁镇 | 11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464 | Son of Xuande | 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 (aged)----Restored to power after his release. Died of natural causes | ||
| Chenghua Chinese: 成化---- | Zhu Jianshen Chinese: 朱見濡 | 28 February 1464 – 9 September 1487 | Son of Yingzong | 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| Hongzhi Chinese: 弘治---- | Zhu Youcheng Chinese: 朱祐樘 | 22 September 1487 – 8 June 1505 | Son of Chenghua | 30 July 1470 – 9 June 1505 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| Zhengde Chinese: 正德---- | Zhu Houzhao Chinese: 朱厚㷖 | 19 June 1505 – 20 April 1521 | Son of Hongzhi | 14 November 1491 – 20 April 1521 (aged)----His reign saw the rise of influence from eunuchs, particularly Liu Jin. Probably drowned after his boat sank. | ||
| Jiajing Chinese: 嘉靖---- | Zhu Houcong Chinese: 朱厚熜 | 27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567 | Grandson of Chenghua, brother of Zhengde | 16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| Longqing Chinese: 隆慶---- | Zhu Zaiji Chinese: 朱載坖 | 4 February 1567 – 5 July 1572 | Son of Jiajing | 4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572 (aged)----Died of natural causes | ||
| Wanli Chinese: 萬曆---- | Zhu Yijun Chinese: 朱翊鈞 | 19 July 1572 – 18 August 1620 | Son of Longqing | 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620 (aged)----Despite early successes, the gradual decline of Ming began towards the end of his reign. Died of natural causes | ||
| Taichang Chinese: 泰昌---- | Zhu Changluo Chinese: 朱常洛 | 28 August – 26 September 1620 | Son of Wanli | 28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620 (aged)----Died suddenly after a reign of around a month, possibly murdered by poison | ||
| Tianqi Chinese: 天啓---- | Zhu Youjiao Chinese: 朱由校 | 1 October 1620 – 30 September 1627 | Son of Taichang | 23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627 (aged)----A weak ruler, his reign was dominated by the eunuch Wei Zhongxian. Died from an unknown illness | ||
| Chongzhen Chinese: 崇禎---- | Zhu Youjian Chinese: 朱由檢 | 2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644 | Son of Taichang, brother of Tianqi | 6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644 (aged)----Committed suicide, possibly by hanging himself on a tree. | ||
See main article: List of emperors of the Qing dynasty.
| + Qing dynasty (大清; 1644–1912) | ||||||
| Portrait | Era name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shunzhi Chinese: 順治---- | Aisin-Gioro Fulin Chinese: 愛新覺羅福臨 | 8 November 1644 – 5 February 1661 | Son of Hong Taiji; chosen by a council of Manchu princes | 15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661 (aged)----Finished the Manchu conquest of the Ming, pushing the remaining Ming sympathizers to the South. Died suddenly of smallpox | ||
| Kangxi Chinese: 康熙---- | Aisin-Gioro Xuanye Chinese: 愛新覺羅玄燁 | 5 February 1661 – 20 December 1722 | Son of Shunzhi | 4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722 (aged)----Longest ruling Chinese emperor. Expanded the empire's territory, and commissioned both the Kangxi Dictionary and Complete Tang Poems. Died of natural causes | ||
| Yongzheng Chinese: 雍正---- | Aisin-Gioro Yinzhen Chinese: 愛新覺羅胤禛 | 27 December 1722 – 8 October 1735 | Son of Kangxi | 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735 (aged)----Ruled for a relatively short period, establishing the Grand Council. Probably died of alchemical elixir poisoning; death officially recorded as natural causes. | ||
| Qianlong Chinese: 乾隆---- | Aisin-Gioro Hongli Chinese: 愛新覺羅弘曆 | 18 October 1735 – 9 February 1796 | Son of Yongzheng | 25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799 (aged)----Brought the empire to its height. Died of natural causes | ||
| Jiaqing Chinese: 嘉慶---- | Aisin-Gioro Yongyan Chinese: 愛新覺羅顒琰 | 9 February 1796 – 2 September 1820 | Son of Qianlong | 13 November 1760 – 2 September 1820 (aged)----Died suddenly from apoplexy | ||
| Daoguang Chinese: 道光---- | Aisin-Gioro Minning Chinese: 愛新覺羅旻寧 | 3 October 1820 – 26 February 1850 | Son of Jiaqing | 16 September 1782 – 25 February 1850 (aged)----An ineffective ruler who led a highly unstable reign, marked by the First Opium War and the early Taiping Rebellion. Probably died from a stroke | ||
| Xianfeng Chinese: 咸豐---- | Aisin-Gioro Yizhu Chinese: 愛新覺羅奕詝 | 9 March 1850 – 22 August 1861 | Son of Daoguang | 17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861 (aged)----The last Chinese emperor to have personal power for the entirety of his reign, which was unstable after the Taiping Rebellion, Nian Rebellion and Second Opium War. Died of natural causes | ||
| Tongzhi Chinese: 同治---- | Aisin-Gioro Zaichun Chinese: 愛新覺羅載淳 | 11 November 1861 – 12 January 1875 | Son of Xianfeng | 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875 (aged)----Reign was completely dominated by Empress Dowager Cixi, who initiated the Tongzhi Restoration. Died suddenly, under suspicious circumstances | ||
| Guangxu Chinese: 光緒---- | Aisin-Gioro Zaitian Chinese: 愛新覺羅載湉 | 25 February 1875 – 14 November 1908 | Cousin of Tongzhi | 14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908 (aged)----Initiated the failed Hundred Days' Reform, and from 1898 on, his reign was completely dominated by Empress Dowager Cixi. Died of poisoning, possibly from Cixi. | ||
| Xuantong Chinese: 宣統---- | Aisin-Gioro Puyi Chinese: 愛新覺羅溥儀 | 2 December 1908 – 12 February 1912 | Nephew of Guangxu | 7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967 (aged)----Reigned as a young child, but was forced to abdicate in 1912 amid the 1911 Revolution, ending the 2000 year monarchial system of Imperial China. Died of natural causes. | ||
| For the subsequent heads of state of China, see List of presidents of the Republic of China and List of state representatives of the People's Republic of China | ||||||
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