Kallikrein Explained

Kallikreins are a subgroup of serine proteases, enzymes capable of cleaving peptide bonds in proteins. In humans, plasma kallikrein (encoded by KLKB1 gene) has no known paralogue, while tissue kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs) encode a family of fifteen closely related serine proteases. These genes are localised to chromosome 19q13, forming the largest contiguous cluster of proteases within the human genome. Kallikreins are responsible for the coordination of various physiological functions including blood pressure, semen liquefaction and skin desquamation.

Occurrence

In 1934, Eugen Werle reported finding a substance in the pancreas of humans and various animals in such large amounts that the pancreas could be taken for its site of origin. He named it kallikrein, by derivation from the Greek word for pancreas. Since then, similar enzymes have been found in the biological fluids of humans and other mammals, as well as in some snake venoms.[1]

Venom

The caterpillar known as Lagoa crispata contains poison glands attached to hypodermic spines, which produce and inject venom that has been characterized as kallikrein in nature.[2]

The venom of solenodons and some shrews like the northern short-tailed shrew consist of multiple copies of kallikrein 1 (KLK1) serine proteases.[3] KLK1 are very similar to serine protease found in venomous snakes like vipers, and have evolved in parallel from a common toxin precursor,[4] which cause hypotensive effects in vivo.[5]

Plasma kallikrein

The KLKB1 gene encoding plasma kallikrein is located on chromosome 4q34-35. It is synthesised as an inactive precursor, prekallikrein, which must undergo proteolytic processing to become activated. This is facilitated by factor XII, PRCP or other stimuli.

Plasma kallikrein liberates kinins (bradykinin and kallidin) from the kininogens,[6] [7] peptides responsible for the regulation of blood pressure and activation of inflammation. It is also capable of generating plasmin from plasminogen:

Structure

Kallikrein is homologous to factor XI and consists of four apple domains and one serine protease domain.

Tissue kallikreins

Distinct from plasma kallikrein, tissue kallikreins (KLKs) are expressed throughout the human body and perform various physiological roles. As some kallikreins are able to catalyse the activation of other kallikreins, several cascades involving these proteases have been implicated in the regulation of homeostatic functions.

Function

Similar to KLKB1, three tissue kallikreins KLK1, KLK2 and KLK12 also participate in regulation of blood pressure via the activation of bradykinin.[8] KLK2, KLK3, KLK4, KLK5 and KLK14 are expressed in the prostate and are thought to be responsible for regulating semen liquefaction through hydrolysis of semenogelin.[9] [10] Desquamation of the skin is likely controlled by KLK5, KLK7 and KLK14, which are expressed in the outermost layer of the epidermis and cleave cellular adhesion proteins.[11] Additionally, KLK6 and KLK8 are associated with neuronal plasticity in the central nervous system.[12]

Genes

There are 15 known human tissue kallikreins: KLK1, KLK2, KLK3, KLK4, KLK5, KLK6, KLK7, KLK8, KLK9, KLK10, KLK11, KLK12, KLK13, KLK14, KLK15.

Clinical significance

Kallikrein-related peptidases are targets of active investigation by drug researchers as possible biomarkers for cancer.[13] [14]

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA; hk3, human kallikrein gene 3) and human glandular kallikrein (hK2) are used as tumor markers for prostate cancer.

Ecallantide, lanadelumab, and berotralstat are FDA-approved drugs that inhibit kallikrein and can be used for managing hereditary angioedema.

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Raspi G . Kallikrein and kallikrein-like proteinases: purification and determination by chromatographic and electrophoretic methods . Journal of Chromatography. B, Biomedical Applications . 684 . 1–2 . 265–287 . September 1996 . 8906477 . 10.1016/0378-4347(96)00144-2 .
  2. Lamdin JM, Howell DE, Kocan KM, Murphey DR, Arnold DC, Fenton AW, Odell GV, Ownby CL . 6 . The venomous hair structure, venom and life cycle of Lagoa crispata, a puss caterpillar of Oklahoma . Toxicon . 38 . 9 . 1163–1189 . September 2000 . 10736472 . 10.1016/s0041-0101(99)00195-6 .
  3. Casewell NR, Petras D, Card DC, Suranse V, Mychajliw AM, Richards D, Koludarov I, Albulescu LO, Slagboom J, Hempel BF, Ngum NM, Kennerley RJ, Brocca JL, Whiteley G, Harrison RA, Bolton FM, Debono J, Vonk FJ, Alföldi J, Johnson J, Karlsson EK, Lindblad-Toh K, Mellor IR, Süssmuth RD, Fry BG, Kuruppu S, Hodgson WC, Kool J, Castoe TA, Barnes I, Sunagar K, Undheim EA, Turvey ST . 6 . Solenodon genome reveals convergent evolution of venom in eulipotyphlan mammals . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 116 . 51 . 25745–25755 . December 2019 . 31772017 . 6926037 . 10.1073/pnas.1906117116 . 2019PNAS..11625745C . free .
  4. Barua A, Koludarov I, Mikheyev AS . Co-option of the same ancestral gene family gave rise to mammalian and reptilian toxins . BMC Biology . 19 . 1 . 268 . December 2021 . 34949191 . 8705180 . 10.1186/s12915-021-01191-1 . free .
  5. Kita M, Okumura Y, Ohdachi SD, Oba Y, Yoshikuni M, Nakamura Y, Kido H, Uemura D . 6 . Purification and characterisation of blarinasin, a new tissue kallikrein-like protease from the short-tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda: comparative studies with blarina toxin . Biological Chemistry . 386 . 2 . 177–182 . February 2005 . 15843162 . 10.1515/BC.2005.022 . free . 2884850 . 2115/7398 .
  6. Bhoola KD, Figueroa CD, Worthy K . Bioregulation of kinins: kallikreins, kininogens, and kininases . Pharmacological Reviews . 44 . 1 . 1–80 . March 1992 . 1313585 .
  7. Book: Stefan Offermanns. Walter Rosenthal. Encyclopedia of Molecular Pharmacology. 11 December 2010. 2008. Springer. 978-3-540-38916-3. 673–.
  8. Giusti B, Serratì S, Margheri F, Papucci L, Rossi L, Poggi F, Magi A, Del Rosso A, Cinelli M, Guiducci S, Kahaleh B, Matucci-Cerinic M, Abbate R, Fibbi G, Del Rosso M . 6 . The antiangiogenic tissue kallikrein pattern of endothelial cells in systemic sclerosis . Arthritis and Rheumatism . 52 . 11 . 3618–3628 . November 2005 . 16255054 . 10.1002/art.21383 . free .
  9. Michael IP, Pampalakis G, Mikolajczyk SD, Malm J, Sotiropoulou G, Diamandis EP . Human tissue kallikrein 5 is a member of a proteolytic cascade pathway involved in seminal clot liquefaction and potentially in prostate cancer progression . The Journal of Biological Chemistry . 281 . 18 . 12743–12750 . May 2006 . 16517595 . 10.1074/jbc.M600326200 . free .
  10. Emami N, Diamandis EP . Human kallikrein-related peptidase 14 (KLK14) is a new activator component of the KLK proteolytic cascade. Possible function in seminal plasma and skin . The Journal of Biological Chemistry . 283 . 6 . 3031–3041 . February 2008 . 18056261 . 10.1074/jbc.M707253200 . free .
  11. Ovaere P, Lippens S, Vandenabeele P, Declercq W . The emerging roles of serine protease cascades in the epidermis . Trends in Biochemical Sciences . 34 . 9 . 453–463 . September 2009 . 19726197 . 10.1016/j.tibs.2009.08.001 .
  12. Tamura H, Ishikawa Y, Hino N, Maeda M, Yoshida S, Kaku S, Shiosaka S . Neuropsin is essential for early processes of memory acquisition and Schaffer collateral long-term potentiation in adult mouse hippocampus in vivo . The Journal of Physiology . 570 . Pt 3 . 541–551 . February 2006 . 16308352 . 1479887 . 10.1113/jphysiol.2005.098715 .
  13. Borgoño CA, Diamandis EP . The emerging roles of human tissue kallikreins in cancer . Nature Reviews. Cancer . 4 . 11 . 876–890 . November 2004 . 15516960 . 10.1038/nrc1474 . 382797 .
  14. Diamandis EP, Yousef GM . Human tissue kallikreins: a family of new cancer biomarkers . Clinical Chemistry . 48 . 8 . 1198–1205 . August 2002 . 12142373 . 10.1093/clinchem/48.8.1198 . free .

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