Islam Explained

Native Name:Arabic: {{script/Arabic|ٱلْإِسْلَام
Imagewidth:275px
Main Classification:Abrahamic
Scripture:Quran
Theology:Monotheistic
Area:Middle East, North Africa, East Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Southeastern Europe[1]
Language:Quranic Arabic
Territory:Muslim world
Separated From:Arabian polytheism
Founder:Muhammad[2]
Founded Date:610 CE
Founded Place:Jabal al-Nour, Mecca, Hejaz, Arabian Peninsula
Number Of Followers: 1.9 billion[3] (individually referred to as Muslims, collectively referred to as the)
Separations:Bábism[4]
Baháʼí Faith[5]
Druze Faith[6]

Islam (;[7] Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام|al-Islām, pronounced as /ar/,) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number approximately 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.[8]

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets and messengers, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injil (Gospel). They believe that Muhammad is the main and final Islamic prophet, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam emphasizes that God is one and incomparable. It states that there will be a "Final Judgment" wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise and the unrighteous will be punished in hell . The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—comprise the Islamic oath and creed ; daily prayers ; almsgiving ; fasting in the month of Ramadan; and a pilgrimage to Mecca. Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad received his first revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, specifically during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, most of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), as well as through conquests.

The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While the Shia–Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country; % live in South Asia; 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe. Muslims are the world's fastest-growing major religious group, due primarily to a higher fertility rate and younger age structure compared to other major religions.

Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام|lit=submission [to God])[9] [10] is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb Arabic: سلم, from the triliteral root Arabic: س-ل-م, which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[11] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God.[12] A Muslim (Arabic: مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam,[13] is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes (faith), and (excellence).[14]

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.[15]

Articles of faith

See main article: Aqidah and Iman. The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.[16]

God

See main article: God in Islam. The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد|link=no), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[17] God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (Arabic: الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahīm (Arabic: الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[18]

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is,"[19] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[20] He is viewed as a personal god and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas (Arabic: إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[21]

Angels

See main article: Angels in Islam. Angels (Arabic: ملك|link=no, ) are beings described in the Quran and hadith. They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr)[22] or 'fire' (nār).[23] Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles. Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking. Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens. Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.

Scriptures

See main article: Islamic holy books, Quran and Wahy.

See also: History of the Quran. The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE[24] and 632, the year Muhammad died. While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization.[25] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[26] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[27] In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[28] [29] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[30]

Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both, while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.

Prophets

See main article: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah and Hadith. Prophets (Arabic: Arabic: أنبياء|label=none|translit=anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (Arabic: رسول‎|label=none|translit=rasūl). Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[31] The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam.[32] [33] In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[34] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (Arabic: صحيح|links=no|translit=[[Authentic hadith|ṣaḥīḥ]]|label=none); "good" (Arabic: حسن|links=no|label=none|translit=[[Hasan (hadith)|ḥasan]]); or "weak" (Arabic: ضعيف|label=none|translit=[[Da'if|ḍaʻīf]]), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[35] Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[36] [37]

Resurrection and judgment

See main article: Islamic eschatology. Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة|link=no) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[38]

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell).[39] The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[40] [41] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic: يوم الدين "Day of Religion"); as-Sāʿah (Arabic: الساعة "the Last Hour"); and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic: القارعة "The Clatterer").

Divine predestination

See main article: Predestination in Islam. The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, ) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".[42] [43] [44] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" (Arabic: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[45]

Acts of worship

See main article: Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah. There are five acts of worship that are considered duties – the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (alms-giving), fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[46] In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.[47]

Declaration of faith

See main article: Shahada. The shahadah is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "" (Arabic: أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."[48] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[49]

Prayer

See main article: Salah.

See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah. Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة|link=no), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.[50] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[51] [52]

Almsgiving

See main article: Zakat.

See also: Sadaqah. Zakat (Arabic: Arabic: زكاة|translit=zakāh|label=none), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[53] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies.[54] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,[55] and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.[56] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[57] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.[58] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[59]

Fasting

See main article: Fasting in Islam.

See also: Fasting during Ramadan. In Islam, fasting (Arabic: Arabic: صوم|translit=ṣawm|label=none) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.[60] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.[61]

Pilgrimage

See main article: Hajj and Umrah.

See also: Holiest sites in Islam.

The Islamic pilgrimage, called the "" (Arabic: حج|link=no), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[62] The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil.[63] All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[64] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.[65] [66]

Other acts of worship

See also: Dua and Dhikr. Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran.[67] Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.

Supplication to God, called in Arabic (Arabic: دعاء pronounced as /ar/) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.[68]

Remembrance of God (Arabic: ذكر|translit=Dhikr'|label=none) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (Arabic: الحمد لله|translit=al-Ḥamdu lillāh|label=none) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (Arabic: بسملة,) before starting an act such as eating.[69]

History

See main article: History of Islam.

See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties.

Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632)

See main article: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam.

See also: Early social changes under Islam. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija. In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel. The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.[70] During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[73] The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.[74]

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats. Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud[75] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.

Early Islamic period (632–750)

See also: Event of Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa. Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali[76] – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands, resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires.[77] [78] Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor. Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism,[79] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt.Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[80] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[81] [82] [83] The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ISIS.[84] The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers. This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[85] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military. Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue. While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,[86] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious. The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid Revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.

Classical era (750–1258)

See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian tradition.

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil. Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata. Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority. Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[87] However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[88] [90] [91] [92] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine,[93] [94] and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles.[95] Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[96] [97] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics.[98] [99] [100] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine.[101] In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function.[102] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[103] Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians, contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[104] [105] and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[106] [107] [108]

Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt[109] and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia.[110] In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century[111] and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.[112] Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[113]

The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam, in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[114] Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[115] Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.[116]

Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas[117] and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.

Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[118] Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism,[119] as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore.[120] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam. Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,[121] by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[122] [123]

Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[124] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model,[125] and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[126]

After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[127] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[128] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.

The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[129] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[130] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[131] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,[132] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[133]

Modern era (18th–20th centuries)

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[134] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology, and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars. He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,[135] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[136] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[137] [138] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[139] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[140] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[141] Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[142] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively. In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement. In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[143] [144]

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[145] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[146] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[147] [148] Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.[149]

The Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924[150] and the subsequent Sharifian Caliphate fell quickly,[151] [152] [153] thus leaving Islam without a Caliph. Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism.[154] [155] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[156]

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America.[157] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,[158] likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[159] [160] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[161] Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[162] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[163] The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.[164]

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[165] [166] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[167] and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[168] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[169] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[170]

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[171] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,[172] the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[173] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.[174] Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,[175] [176] while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.[177]

The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[178] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions. Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[179] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam[180] notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance, an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.[181] [182] Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites,[183] and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.[184]

Demographics

See main article: Muslim world and Ummah.

See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growth. As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims.[3] [8] [185] [186] [187] [188] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[189] in 1990 it was 19.9% and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050. The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[190] [191] [192] [193] with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia,[194] Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[195] [196] Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world,[197] followed by Bengalis[198] [199] and Punjabis.[200] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[201] [202] Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,[203] accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.

Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."[204] Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).[205] [206]

According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".[207] In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[208] According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.[209] [210]

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[211] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[212]

Main branches or denominations

See also: Shia–Sunni relations.

Sunni

See main article: Sunni Islam. Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[213] [214] [215] The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".[216] Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",[217] [218] [219] though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.[220] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.[221]

Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters.[222] Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[223] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.

Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[224] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[225] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[226]

Shia

See main article: Shia Islam. Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.[227] [228] Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's successor as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[229] [230] Shias are guided by the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence.[231]

According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.[232] Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority).[233] Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims because of some other companions who selected Abū Bakr as caliph.[234] Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad.[235] Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,[236] citing Umar's appointment by Abu Bakr,[237] other historical evidence,[238] and the Qur'an's stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.[239]

Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and Husayn.[240] Twelvers, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.[241] Zaidism rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[242] [243] They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".[244] The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[245]

For Shias, the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom are also among the Islamic Holy sites.[246]

Muhakkima

See main article: Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam and Kharijites.

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[247] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[248]

Other denominations

Non-denominational Muslims

See main article: Non-denominational Muslim. Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[266] [267] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[268] [269] [270] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.

Mysticism

See main article: Sufism.

See also: Sufi–Salafi relations. Sufism (Arabic: Arabic: تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God and become a more perfected servant of God.[271] [272] [273] Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through study of and strict adherence to the Qur'an and sunnah and application of fiqh in one's life.[274] Ahmad ibn Ajiba defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]."[275] It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism[276] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[277] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[278] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.[279] [280]

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[281] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism. Followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.[282]

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[283] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[284] The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.[285] [286] [287] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[288] [289] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[290] [291]

Law and jurisprudence

See main article: Sharia and Fiqh.

Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[292] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.

Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[293] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[294] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram). Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible, forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence. Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.

Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law. In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms led to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[149] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[295] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[296] [297]

Schools of jurisprudence

See main article: Madhhab. A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili schools. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[298] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.

Society

Religious personages

See main article: Ulama. Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (Arabic: إمام|label=none) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[299] Religious interpretation is presided over by the ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (Arabic: فقيه|label=none), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (Arabic: كرامات|translit=karāmāt|label=none).[300]

Governance

See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, tasamuh and Jihad. In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[301] Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest. Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[302] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.[303] The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[304] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[305] [306] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[307] After meeting a poor Jewish man begging, caliph Umar exempted non-Muslim elders from the jizya tax and fixed a stipend for them from the Bayt al-Mal.[308]

Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection[309] while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.[310] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[311] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 CE.

Daily and family life

See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam and Polygyny in Islam. Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[312] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[313] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[314] Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.[315] Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[316] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[317] Religious tolerance towards other faiths (tasamuh) is a cultural norm and normatively encouraged by Sunni Islamic governments.[318] [319] [320]

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[321] [322] Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.[323] [324] There are also cultural variations in weddings.[325] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[326]

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear. On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor. Male circumcision, called khitan,[327] is often practised in the Muslim world.[328] [329] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words.[330] Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan. A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[331]

Arts and culture

See main article: Islamic culture.

See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, Islam in association football and Cultural Muslims. The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[332] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims, sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[333]

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[334] [335] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[336] Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims.[337] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[338] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[339]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.[340] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[341]

Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[342] [343]

Influences on other religions

Some movements, such as the Druze,[344] [345] [346] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.[347] The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate.[348] [349] Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.[350] Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[351] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[352]

Criticism

See main article: Criticism of Islam.

See also: Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the Quran.

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.

Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. [353]

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[354] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[355] Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.

Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.[356] Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[357]

See also

References

Sources

Encyclopedias and dictionaries

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Center . Pew Research . 2013-04-30 . The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society . 2024-03-20 . Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project . en-US . 25 October 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231025124036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ . live.
  2. Encyclopedia: Welch . Alford T. . Moussalli . Ahmad S. . Newby . Gordon D. . 2009 . Muḥammad . The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World . John L. Esposito . Oxford University Press . Oxford . usurped . https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 . 11 February 2017 .
  3. Web site: Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 . 2024-03-09 . Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project . 21 December 2022 . en-US . 28 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230128120036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ . live .
  4. Encyclopedia: Encyclopedia of Islam . 1999 . Bāb . Koninklijke Brill NV . Leiden, The Netherlands . A. . Bausani.
  5. Book: Van der Vyer, J.D. . 1996 . Religious human rights in global perspective: religious perspectives . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers . 90-411-0176-4 . 449. registration.
  6. Book: Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne . The Oxford Handbook of American Islam. 2014. 9780199862634. 142. Oxford University Press.
  7. Web site: English pronunciation of Islam . Cambridge Dictionary . 19 Dec 2023 . 22 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210122222922/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/islam . live .
  8. Web site: Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center. 21 December 2022 . 27 November 2023. 5 February 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230205195540/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/. live.
  9. Web site: Definition of Islam Dictionary.com . 2022-05-09 . www.dictionary.com . en . 9 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220509110220/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam . live .
  10. Book: Haywood, John . Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) . Barnes & Noble, Inc. . 2002 . 0-7607-1975-6 . 1st . Spain . 3.13 . en.
  11. "Siin ." Lane's Lexicon 4. – via StudyQuran.
  12. Book: Lewis . Barnard . Churchill . Buntzie Ellis . Islam: The Religion and The People . Wharton School Publishing . 2009 . 978-0-13-223085-8 . 8.
  13. "Muslim." Lexico. UK: Oxford University Press. 2020.
  14. Book: Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir . The mosque: the heart of submission . . 2006 . 978-0-8232-2584-2 . 84 . registration.
  15. Book: Gibb, Sir Hamilton. Oxford University Press. Mohammedanism: an historical survey. 9780195002454. 1969. 1 . Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ..
  16. Book: Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality. New World Library. 68–9. Joel. Beversluis. 2011. 9781577313328. 15 January 2023. 28 December 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022948/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
  17. Encyclopedia: Tawhid . . 17 September 2021 . subscription . 7 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211107041300/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid . live .
  18. Book: Ali . Kecia . Islam : the key concepts . 2008 . . Leaman . Oliver . 978-0-415-39638-7 . London . 123136939.
  19. Encyclopedia: Schimmel . Annemarie . Annemarie Schimmel . Islam . . 17 September 2021 . subscription . 4 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150504201633/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam . live .
  20. Leeming, David. 2005. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . p. 209.
  21. Web site: God . 18 December 2010 . Islam: Empire of Faith . . 27 March 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html . live .
  22. "Nūr ." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. – via Encyclopedia.com.
  23. . – via Encyclopedia.com.
  24. Book: Watt, William Montgomery . Islam and the Integration of Society . 2003 . . 978-0-415-17587-6 . 5 . 15 June 2021 . 28 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022949/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false . live .
  25. Al Faruqi . Lois Ibsen . Lois Lamya al-Faruqi . 1987 . The Cantillation of the Qur'an . . Autumn – Winter 1987 . 3–4.
  26. Encyclopedia: Ringgren . Helmer . Qurʾān . . 17 September 2021 . subscription . 5 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran . live . "The word Quran was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation."
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  28. Book: Jones, Alan. London. Charles E. Tuttle Company. 1994. 1. The Koran. "Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence.". 1842126091.
  29. Book: Arberry, Arthur. The Koran Interpreted. London. Allen & Unwin. 1956. "It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.". 191. 0684825074.
  30. Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an 3. pp. 213, 216.
  31. Book: Reeves, J. C. . Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality . . 2004 . 90-04-12726-7 . . 177 . 21 August 2019 . 19 April 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC . live .
  32. Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . (See also: quick reference .) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."
  33. Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . (See also: quick reference .) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.
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  38. . : "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."
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  43. "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."

  44. The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".

  45. Web site: Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr . 13 November 2020 . BBC . Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel . 15 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201115112558/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 . live .
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  47. ZAROUG. ABDULLAHI HASSAN. 1985. THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION, SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM [sic] IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE. Islamic Studies. 24. 2. 167–180. 20847307. 0578-8072. 7 January 2023. 7 December 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221207140013/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307. live.
  48. Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." Journal of Law and Religion 3(2):381–97.
  49. Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003
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  55. This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.

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  126. Web site: 1999 . Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi . University of St Andrews . 29 December 2021 . 4 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103227/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ . live .
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  128. Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321
  129. Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 p. 540
  130. Book: Algar, Ayla Esen . The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey . 15 . 1 January 1992 . . 978-0-520-07060-8 . 29 April 2020 . Google Books . 28 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024414/https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism#v=snippet&q=ottomans%20sufism&f=false . live .
  131. Web site: CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India. Iranica Online. English. 6 October 2022. 7 October 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii. live.
  132. Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered . Ernest . Tucker . Iranian Studies . 27 . 1–4 . 1994 . 163–179 . 10.1080/00210869408701825 . 4310891.
  133. Encyclopedia: Nāder Shāh . . 29 March 2006 . Ernest . Tucker . 9 March 2021 . 25 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181225103212/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah%20 . live .
  134. Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set Routledge 2013 pp. 270–271
  135. Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 p. 6
  136. Book: Spevack, Aaron . The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri . 2014 . . 978-1-4384-5371-2 . 129–130 . 10 December 2018 . 28 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024415/https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ . live .
  137. Donald Quataert The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 Cambridge University Press 2005 p. 50
  138. Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 p. 260
  139. The Emergence of a Scholar from a Garrison Society: A contextual analysis of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's doctrine in the light of the Qur'ān and Hadīth . University of Wales Trinity Saint David . 2022-08-23 . masters . en . Shahajada Md . Musa . 19 December 2023 . 2 May 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230502100026/https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ . live .
  140. News: 4 September 2013 . Graves desecrated in Mizdah . . 2 November 2013 . 3 November 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172759/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO . live .
  141. Nicolas Laos The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics Wipf and Stock Publishers 2015 p. 177
  142. Book: Rubin, Barry M.. Guide to Islamist Movements. 79. 2000. M.E. Sharpe. 0-7656-1747-1. 28 June 2010. 28 December 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
  143. Book: Robert L. Canfield . Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective . 2002 . . 978-0-521-52291-5 . 131– . 1 December 2018 . 28 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131#v=onepage&q&f=false . live .
  144. Sanyal . Usha . 23 July 1998 . Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century . . 32 . 3 . 635–656 . 10.1017/S0026749X98003059 . Cambridge Core . 23 February 2020 . 17 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 . live .
  145. Buzpinar . Ş. Tufan . March 2007 . Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion . Middle Eastern Studies . 43 . 2 . 247–258 . 10.1080/00263200601114091 . 4284539. 144461915 .
  146. Book: Lauziere, Henri. The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. Columbia University Press. 2016. 978-0-231-17550-0. New York, Chichester, West Sussex. 231–232. "Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals.".
  147. News: 3 January 2014 . Political Islam: A movement in motion . . 1 January 2014 . 4 January 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032602/http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam . live .
  148. Book: Smith . Wilfred Cantwell . Islam in Modern History . Princeton University Press . 1957 . 0-691-03030-8 . 233 . Wilfred Cantwell Smith.
  149. Web site: John Esposito . Esposito . John L. . Mecelle . . subscription . Oxford Islamic Studies Online . 17 August 2023 . 17 August 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230817003534/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 . live .
  150. News: 29 June – 5 July 2000 . New Turkey . . 488 . dead . 16 May 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm . 4 October 2010.
  151. Web site: الوطن . جريدة . webmaster . 2020-05-05 . «مملكة الحجاز».. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح . 2023-12-19 . جريدة الوطن . ar . 16 May 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD . live .
  152. Bani Issa . Mohammad Saleh . 2023-11-01 . Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study) . Heliyon . 9 . 11 . e20993 . 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993 . 2405-8440 . free. 37928029 . 10623165 . 2023Heliy...920993B .
  153. Book: والخلفاء, قصص الخلافة الإسلامية . قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء . 2023-03-31 . Austin Macauley Publishers . 978-1-3984-9251-6 . en . 26 December 2023 . 28 December 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ . live .
  154. Book: Doran, Michael . Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question . 1999 . Oxford university press . 978-0-19-512361-6 . Studies in Middle Eastern history . New York Oxford.
  155. Book: Landau, Yaʿaqov M. . The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization . 1994 . Clarendon Press . 978-0-19-827709-5 . [Rev. and updated] paperback (with additions and corr.) . Oxford.
  156. News: 26 December 2010 . Organization of the Islamic Conference . . 24 September 2013 . 28 June 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180628190335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm . live .
  157. Book: Zabel, Darcy. Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora. Peter Lang. 2006. 9780820481111. Austria. 5.
  158. The Future of the Global Muslim Population . 27 January 2011 . . 27 December 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx . 9 February 2011 . live.
  159. News: 9 August 2011 . Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? . . 10 August 2011 . 4 November 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 . live .
  160. News: Slackman . Michael . 23 December 2008 . Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam . . 15 August 2011 . 4 November 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html . live .
  161. News: Kirkpatrick . David D. . 3 December 2011 . Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule . . 8 December 2011 . 4 November 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html . live .
  162. Book: Lauziere, Henri. The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. Columbia University Press. 2016. 978-0-231-17550-0. New York, Chichester, West Sussex. 237. "Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations.".
  163. Book: G. Rabil, Robert. Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism. Georgetown University Press. 2014. 978-1-62616-116-0. Washington DC, US. 32–33. "Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,..".
  164. News: Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper . The Guardian . 21 November 2014 . 31 July 2022 . 4 November 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins . live .
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  166. News: Saleh . Heba . 15 October 2011 . Tunisia moves against headscarves . . 6 December 2011 . 29 May 2012 . https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm . live .
  167. News: 28 June 2007 . Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit . . 15 August 2011 . 6 March 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 . live .
  168. Book: The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Bowering . Gerhard . Mirza . Mahan . Crone . Patricia. 2013 . Princeton University Press . 59. 9780691134840.
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  173. Web site: Beydoun . Khaled A. . For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' . . English . 5 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html . 10 December 2018 . live .
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  330. Book: 9783643900678. Changing European Death Ways. Austria. 2013. Mathijssen. Brenda. Venhorst. Claudia. Venbrux. Eric. Quartier. Thomas. 265 . Lit .
  331. News: Rahman. Rema . 25 October 2011. Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?. BBC . 28 January 2022.
  332. News: Melikian . Souren . Souren Melikian . 4 November 2011 . 'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth . . subscription . 25 November 2013.
  333. Book: Lawrence, Bruce. Wiley. 9781405155144. Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit . United Kingdom. 2021. xii.
  334. Book: Ettinghausen . Richard . Oleg . Grabar . Marilyn . Jenkins-Madina . Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 . . 2003 . 0-300-08869-8 . 2nd . 3.
  335. Book: Suarez, Michael F.. The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford University Press. 2010. 9780198606536. Oxford and New York. 331ff. 38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World. 50238944.
  336. Book: Salim Ayduz . The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam . Ibrahim Kalin . Caner Dagli . 2014 . 263. . 978-0-19-981257-8 . Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal..
  337. 860736. An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions. T. W. Arnold. The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. T. W. Arnold. June 1919. 34. 195. The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.. 249–252.
  338. Book: Isichei, Elizabeth Allo . [{{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} A history of African societies to 1870 ]. . 1997 . 978-0-521-45599-2 . Cambridge . 175 . 6 August 2010.
  339. Book: Tjahjono, Gunawan . Indonesian Heritage-Architecture . 1998 . Archipelago Press . Singapore . 981-3018-30-5 . 88–89 .
  340. Web site: Islamic calendar. www.britannica.com. 8 August 2022.
  341. Book: Esposito, John. Oxford University Press. 9780195165203. The Islamic World: Past and Present. 2004. 75–76 . none.
  342. Book: Cara. Aitchison. Cara Aitchison. Peter E.. Hopkins. Mei-Po Kwan. Mei-Po Kwan. Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. 30 June 2013. 2007. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. 978-1-4094-8747-0. 147.
  343. Book: Rassool, G. Hussein. Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. 2015. 9781317441250. 10. Routledge. The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices..
  344. Book: De McLaurin, Ronald . The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East . Michigan University Press . 1979 . 978-0-03-052596-4 . 114 . Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above....
  345. Book: Hunter, Shireen . The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies . . 2010 . 978-0-253-34549-3 . 33 . Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims..
  346. Book: R. Williams, Victoria . Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes] . . 2020 . 978-1-4408-6118-5 . 318 . As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims..
  347. Book: D. Grafton, David . Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East . . 2009 . 978-1-63087-718-7 . 14 . In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis..
  348. Poonawala . Ismail K. . July–September 1999 . Review: The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning by Heinz Halm . . . 119 . 3 . 542 . 10.2307/605981 . 0003-0279 . 605981 . 12032032 . 47785421.
  349. Bryer . David R. W. . The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung) . . 1975 . 52 . 2 . 239–262 . 10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 . 162363556 . 1613-0928 . .
  350. Book: Foltz, Richard . Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present . 7 November 2013 . 978-1-78074-307-3 . 219 . Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan . Oneworld Publications .
  351. Web site: House of Justice . Universal . One Common Faith . 1 April 2017 . reference.bahai.org.
  352. Elsberg, Constance (2003), Graceful Women. University of Tennessee Press. . pp. 27–28.
  353. Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions Cambridge University Press, 2015 pp. 18–20
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  355. Stone, G. 2006. Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion. Springer Publishing. . p. 53-54.
  356. Book: Yohanan. Friedmann. 2003. Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. limited. Cambridge University Press. 18, 35. 978-0-521-02699-4.
  357. Book: Modood, Tariq . Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach . 6 April 2006 . . 978-0-415-35515-5 . 1st . 29 . registration.

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