Inhalation sedation is a form of conscious sedation where an inhaled drug should:
The following are possible uses for conscious sedation "dental anxiety and phobia, a need for prolonged or traumatic dental procedures, medical conditions potentially aggravated by stress (such as ischaemic heart disease, hypertension, asthma and epilepsy), medical or behavioural conditions affecting a patient's ability to cooperate, special care requirements".[2]
Complications from inhalation sedation are rare, and are those events that require intervention to correct adverse physiological responses. They include over-sedation, respiratory depression/apnoea, unconscious patient, airway obstruction, vomiting, idiosyncratic responses, delayed recovery, and failure of conscious sedation.[3]
Few absolute contraindications exist, however, "relative contraindications are important and can only be considered following a full assessment."[4] They include:
On a visit prior to the treatment session, the anesthesiologist makes a full assessment to determine the need for sedation and the technique most suited to the individual patient. This consists of a detailed record of the patient's history and a thorough examination. A medical, dental, and social history covers the patient's age, state of health, social circumstances, drug history, and any special needs. This helps determine the sedation technique most appropriate for a positive outcome for each individual. The examination takes into account the patient's general appearance, skin colour, pulse, blood pressure, and respiration rates. Only patients in ASA classes I and II are normally suitable for sedation in the primary care dental setting. Patients in ASA class III or IV should be referred to an appropriate secondary care (i.e., hospital) establishment with critical care facilities.
Inhalation sedation using nitrous oxide has a long history of safe use in both medicine and dentistry. It can therefore be used safely in most patients in the dental setting.[5] However, in some patients sedation with nitrous oxide would be unsuitable. Some examples are below.
Inhalation sedation with nitrous oxide/oxygen is a well recognised safe and effective technique. The desirable effect of the procedure is to relax the patient while maintaining verbal contact. Compared to other sedation agents, it causes minimal physiological stress to the patient and risk of loss of consciousness is less likely. However, problems can still arise. It is vital the dental staff are appropriately trained and qualified in dealing with complications and medical emergencies. Administering oxygen is of highest importance in an emergency situation. If patient is showing signs of oversedation, the concentration of nitrous oxide should be immediately reduced, and the oxygen concentration should be increased. All patients undergoing treatment under sedation should be continually assessed in the following:
Any deviation from the normal values should prompt the dental clinician to lighten the sedation.The dental clinician can recognise and deal with the following sedation related complications:
There are some downsides relating to the use of nitrous oxide. It can present as a potential hazard to the operator in charge of administering the gas. It has been shown that continual exposure to nitrous oxide can result in illnesses, such as haematological disorders and reproductive problems. Thus, active or passive scavenging is essential to remove nitrous oxide from the environment. Another disadvantage can be the risk of mouth breathing. Inhalation sedation requires the patient to breath through the nose, which can be especially difficult in very young children or patients with learning difficulties. Additionally, the drug cannot be used alone; it must be used alongside appropriate methods of behaviour management and local anaesthetic. Therefore, the degree of sedation can depend on the efficacy of behavioural techniques and psychological reassurance from the dentist.[6]
In the UK, machines used for the administration of inhalation sedation should follow the British Standards[8] and be well-maintained according to the manufacturer's guidance.
Equipment used for inhalation sedation for dentistry include:[9]
Oxygen fail safe mechanism is the most important safety feature of the equipment used in inhalation sedation. Nitrous oxide flow is only allowed via an opened valve when there is flow of oxygen to the system. In any circumstances when oxygen flow is less than 30%, nitrous oxide stops flowing. This prevents the potential delivery of 100% nitrous oxide and it becomes a standard on every sedation unit made today.All nasal hoods should have scavenging ability— provide fresh gas to the patient through one or two hoses while the extra hoses eliminate exhaled gas by the patient via a vacuum system.
A pin index safety system prevents incorrectly fitting the two cylinders. In addition, the cylinders are colour coded, which further reduces the risk of incorrect cylinder placement.[10]
A diameter index system is also in place to prevent incorrect linking of hoses and stems—the attachment couplings, hoses, and stems are different diameters.
Pressure relief devices that dissipate contents of the cylinder to the atmosphere prevent explosion of cylinder due to over-filling. In an emergency, an oxygen flush or emergency oxygen system passes a high flow of high pressure oxygen direct from the source bypassing intermediate meters.
Several alarm systems are used to indicate a depleting oxygen supply. Audible alarms are required in Europe and are recommended in the United States.
Nitrous oxide was first discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1772. In 1795, Humphry Davy and surgeon J. B. Borlase experimented with nitrous oxide and the effects of its inhalation. Davy then published a book in 1799 hinting the possible role of nitrous oxide in achieving mild anaesthesia during surgical procedures. In 1844, Dr. Horace Wells carried out an experiment on himself where he had Professor Gardner Quincy Colton administer nitrous oxide to himself prior to a wisdom tooth extraction by Dr. John Riggs. Wells discovered that he was unaware of the procedure and experienced absolutely no pain during the procedure.[11]
In 1824, Henry Hill Hickman used carbon dioxide to achieve a state of "suspended animation" in animals; successfully diminishing pain during the surgical procedure.
In 1831, chloroform was discovered by Justus von Liebig in Germany, Samuel Guthrie in New York and Eugène Soubeiran in France, all of whom worked independently.
In 1842, a chemist in Rochester, William Edward Clarke provided Dr. Elijah Pope with ether prior to a tooth extraction of his patient.[12] In the same year, a doctor in Georgia, Dr. Crawford W. Long administered ether to John Venable for the removal of a neck tumour.