Hurricane Andrew Explained

Extratropical:August 28, 1992
Winds:150
Pressure:922
Year:1992
Fatalities:65
Damage:27300000000
Areas:The Bahamas, Florida, Louisiana, Southeastern United States, Mid-Atlantic states
Season:1992 Atlantic hurricane season

Hurricane Andrew was a compact, but very powerful and destructive Category 5 Atlantic hurricane that struck the Bahamas, Florida, and Louisiana in August 1992. It is the most destructive hurricane to ever hit Florida in terms of structures damaged or destroyed, and remained the costliest in financial terms until Hurricane Irma surpassed it 25 years later. Andrew was also the strongest landfalling hurricane in the United States in decades and the costliest hurricane to strike anywhere in the country, until it was surpassed by Katrina in 2005. In addition, Andrew is one of only four tropical cyclones to make landfall in the continental United States as a Category 5, alongside the 1935 Labor Day hurricane, 1969's Camille, and 2018's Michael. While the storm also caused major damage in the Bahamas and Louisiana, the greatest impact was felt in South Florida, where the storm made landfall as a Category 5 hurricane, with 1-minute sustained wind speeds as high as 165mph and a gust as high as 174abbr=onNaNabbr=on. Passing directly through the cities of Cutler Bay and Homestead in Dade County (now known as Miami-Dade County), the hurricane stripped many homes of all but their concrete foundations and caused catastrophic damage. In total, Andrew destroyed more than 63,500 houses, damaged more than 124,000 others, caused $27.3 billion in damage (equivalent to $ billion in), and left 65 people dead.

Andrew began as a tropical depression over the eastern Atlantic Ocean on August 16. After spending a week without significantly strengthening itself in the central Atlantic, the storm rapidly intensified into a powerful Category 5 hurricane while moving westward towards the Bahamas on August 23. Though Andrew briefly weakened to Category 4 status while traversing the Bahamas, it regained Category 5 intensity before making landfall in Florida on Elliott Key and then Homestead on August 24. With a barometric pressure of at the time of landfall in Florida, Andrew is the sixth most-intense hurricane to strike the United States. Several hours later, the hurricane emerged over the Gulf of Mexico at Category 4 strength, with the Gulf Coast of the United States in its dangerous path. After turning northwestward and weakening further, Andrew moved ashore near Morgan City, Louisiana, as a low-end Category 3 storm. The small hurricane curved northeastward after landfall and rapidly lost its intensity, becoming extratropical on August 28, and merging with the remnants of Hurricane Lester and a frontal system over the southern Appalachian Mountains on August 29.

Andrew first inflicted structural damage as it moved through the Bahamas, especially in Cat Cays, lashing the islands with storm surge, hurricane-force winds, and tornadoes. About 800 houses were destroyed in the archipelago, and there was substantial damage to the transport, water, sanitation, agriculture, and fishing sectors. Andrew left four dead and $250 million in damage throughout the Bahamas. In parts of southern Florida, Andrew produced severe winds; a wind gust of 177mph was observed at a house in Perrine. The cities of Florida City, Homestead, Cutler Ridge, and parts of Kendall received the brunt of Andrew. As many as 1.4 million people lost power at the height of the storm; some for more than one month. In the Everglades, 70000acres of trees were downed, while invasive Burmese pythons began inhabiting the region after a nearby facility housing them was destroyed. Though Andrew was moving fast, rainfall in Florida was substantial in a few areas (less in others); the rainfall peaked at 13.98inches in western Dade County. Andrew was considered a "dry hurricane" by multiple media networks.[1] [2] In Florida, Andrew killed 44 and left a then-record $25 billion in damage.

Prior to making landfall in Louisiana on August 26, Andrew caused extensive damage to oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, leading to $500 million in losses for oil companies. It produced hurricane-force winds along its path through Louisiana, damaging large stretches of power lines that left about 230,000 people without electricity. Over 80% of trees in the Atchafalaya River basin were downed, and the agriculture there was devastated. Throughout the basin and Bayou Lafourche, 187 million freshwater fish were killed in the hurricane. With 23,000 houses damaged, 985 others destroyed, and 1,951 mobile homes demolished, property losses in Louisiana exceeded $1.5 billion. The hurricane caused the deaths of 17 people in the state, 6 of whom drowned offshore. Andrew spawned at least 28 tornadoes along the Gulf Coast, especially in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. In total, Andrew left 65 dead and caused $27.3 billion in damage. Andrew is currently the ninth-costliest Atlantic hurricane to hit the United States. It is also the third-strongest hurricane to hit the U.S. mainland by wind speed (165mph.[3]

Meteorological history

See main article: Meteorological history of Hurricane Andrew.

A tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on August 14. A ridge of high pressure to its north caused the wave to move quickly westward. An area of convection developed along the wave axis to the south of the Cape Verde islands, and on August 15, meteorologists began classifying the system with the Dvorak technique. The thunderstorm activity became more concentrated, and narrow spiral rainbands began to develop around a center of circulation. It is estimated that Tropical Depression Three developed late on August 16, about 1630miles east-southeast of Barbados.[4] Embedded within the deep easterlies, the depression tracked west-northwestward at 20mph.[5] Initially, moderate wind shear prevented strengthening, until a decrease in shear allowed the depression to intensify into Tropical Storm Andrew at 12:00 UTC on August 17.[4]

By early August 18, the storm maintained convection near the center with spiral bands to its west as the winds increased to 50mph.[6] Shortly thereafter, the storm began weakening because of increased southwesterly wind shear from an upper-level low.[4] On August 19, a Hurricane Hunters flight into the storm failed to locate a well-defined center[7] and on the following day, a flight found that the cyclone had degenerated to the extent that only a diffuse low-level circulation center remained; observations indicated the barometric pressure rose to an unusually high 1015abbr=onNaNabbr=on. The flight indicated that Andrew maintained a vigorous circulation aloft. After the upper-level low weakened and split into a trough, the wind shear decreased over the storm. A strong high pressure system then developed over the southeastern United States, which built eastward and caused Andrew to turn to the west.[4] Convection became more organized as upper-level outflow became better established.[8] An eye formed, and Andrew attained hurricane status early on August 22, about 650miles east-southeast of Nassau, Bahamas.[4] In the forecast issued six hours after becoming a hurricane, the cyclone was predicted to make landfall near Jupiter, Florida, with winds of 105mph on August 25.[9] This underestimated both the strength and the speed of the storm, which would eventually make landfall in South Florida.[4]

The hurricane accelerated westward into an area of highly favorable conditions, and began to rapidly intensify late on August 22; in a 24‑hour period the atmospheric pressure dropped by 47abbr=onNaNabbr=on to a minimum of 922abbr=onNaNabbr=on.[4] On August 23, the storm attained Category 5 status on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale, reaching peak winds of 175mph a short distance off Eleuthera island in the Bahamas at 18:00 UTC.[10] Despite its intensity, Andrew was a small tropical cyclone, with winds of 35mph extending out only about 90miles from the center.[11] After reaching that intensity, the hurricane underwent an eyewall replacement cycle.[12] At 21:00 UTC on August 23, Andrew made landfall on Eleuthera as a Category 5 hurricane, with winds of 160mph.[10] The cyclone weakened further while crossing the Bahama Banks, and at 01:00 UTC on August 24, Andrew hit the southern Berry Islands of the Bahamas as a Category 4 hurricane, with winds of 150mph.[10] As it crossed over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the hurricane rapidly re-intensified as the eye decreased in size and its eyewall convection deepened.[4] At 08:40 UTC on August 24, Andrew struck Elliott Key as a Category 5 hurricane, with winds of 165mph and a pressure of 926abbr=onNaNabbr=on. About 25 minutes after its first Florida landfall, Andrew made another landfall just northeast of Homestead, with a slightly lower pressure of 922abbr=onNaNabbr=on.[10] This barometric pressure made Andrew the most intense hurricane to strike the United States since Hurricane Camille in 1969 and the strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall in Florida since the Labor Day hurricane of 1935.[4] The United States would not experience another landfall from a hurricane at Category 5 intensity until Hurricane Michael in 2018.[13] As the eye moved onshore in Florida, the convection in the eyewall strengthened due to increased convergence, and Hurricane Hunters reported a warmer eyewall temperature than two hours prior. However, Andrew weakened as it continued further inland, and after crossing southern Florida in four hours, the storm emerged into the Gulf of Mexico with winds of 130mph.[4] In the Gulf of Mexico, the eye remained well-defined as the hurricane turned to the west-northwest, a change due to the weakening of the ridge to its north.[14] Andrew steadily re-intensified over the Gulf of Mexico, reaching winds of 145mph late on August 25.[10] As the high pressure system to its north weakened, a strong mid-latitude trough approached the area from the northwest. This caused the hurricane to decelerate to the northwest, and winds decreased as Andrew approached the Gulf Coast of the United States.[4]

At 08:30 UTC on August 26, the cyclone made landfall about 20miles west-southwest of Morgan City, Louisiana, with winds of 115mph.[10] Andrew weakened rapidly as it turned to the north and northeast, falling to tropical storm intensity within 10 hours. After entering Mississippi, the cyclone deteriorated to tropical depression status early on August 27. Accelerating northeastward, the depression began merging with the approaching frontal system, and by midday on August 28, Andrew had lost its tropical identity while located over the southern Appalachian Mountains.[4] The storm's remnants continued moving towards the northeast, fully merging with the remnants of Hurricane Lester and the frontal zone over the Mid-Atlantic, in Pennsylvania, on August 29.[15] [16] [17]

Post-analysis on Andrew revealed that the storm was often stronger than operationally reported between early on August 22 and early on August 26. In real time, the National Hurricane Center assessed its peak intensity as 150mph,[18] which was upgraded to 155mph in a post-storm analysis after the season ended.[4] However, a 2004 paper by Christopher Landsea and others concluded that Andrew became a Category 5 hurricane near the Bahamas on August 23 and reached maximum sustained winds of 175mph. The paper also indicated that Andrew briefly re-intensified into a Category 5 hurricane around the time of landfall in South Florida early on August 24. The storm was found to have been slightly stronger than originally assessed while approaching Louisiana, but the landfall winds were decreased from 120to.[10]

Preparations

Bahamas

See main article: Effects of Hurricane Andrew in The Bahamas. Bahamas Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham, who took office while the storm was active, urged residents to "take this hurricane seriously".[19] Before the hurricane passed through the Bahamas, forecasters predicted a storm surge of up to 18feet, as well as up to 8inches of rain.[20] On August 22, hurricane watches were issued from Andros and Eleuthera islands northward through Grand Bahama and Great Abaco. They were upgraded to hurricane warnings later that day, and on August 23, additional warnings were issued for the central Bahamas, including Cat Island, Exuma, San Salvador Island, and Long Island, Bahamas. All watches and warnings were discontinued on August 24.[4] Advance warning was credited for the low death toll in the country.[21] A total of 58 shelters were opened at churches, government buildings, and schools.[19]

Florida

See main article: Effects of Hurricane Andrew in Florida. Initially, forecasters predicted tides up to 14feet above normal along the east coast of Florida, near the potential location of landfall.[22] Rainfall was projected to be between 5and along the path of the storm. In addition, the National Hurricane Center noted the likelihood of isolated tornadoes in Central and South Florida during the passage of Andrew on August 23 and 24.[23] Several tropical storm and hurricane warnings were issued for much of Central and South Florida, from Titusville on the east coast to Venice on the west coast. Included in the warnings were Lake Okeechobee and all of the Florida Keys. By 18:00 UTC on August 24, all watches and warnings issued were discontinued after Andrew progressed into the Gulf of Mexico.[4]

Governor Lawton Chiles declared a state of emergency and activated about one-third of the Florida National Guard. Many residents evacuated, most voluntarily, from Broward, Charlotte, Collier, Lee, Martin, Dade, Monroe, Palm Beach, and Sarasota counties. A total of 142 shelters opened in these counties and collectively housed at least 84,340 people.[24] In Dade County alone, 515,670 people were ordered to evacuate.[25] As Andrew was approaching, an estimated 20,000–30,000 tourists were in the Florida Keys (Monroe County).[26] Overall, almost 1.2 million people evacuated, which contributed to the low number of fatalities, despite the intensity of the storm.[4] Many evacuees also checked into hotels, with rooms completely booked as far north as Ocala. Ultimately, the sheer number of evacuees led to likely the largest traffic jam in the history of Florida, mostly along Interstate 95. United States Coast Guard vessels on or near the Florida coastline were either secured onshore or sent to ride out the storm at sea.[27] Government offices and public and private schools were closed from Monroe County northward to St. Lucie County.[28] Many colleges and universities in southeast Florida also closed.[29] Major airports such as the Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood,[29] Key West, Miami,[19] and Palm Beach international airports closed.[29]

Gulf Coast of the United States

Shortly after the storm emerged into the Gulf of Mexico from southern Florida, the National Hurricane Center issued hurricane watches and warnings for the Gulf Coast of the United States beginning at 13:00 UTC on August 24. After the initial hurricane watch from Mobile, Alabama, to Sabine Pass, Texas, the watches and warnings were expanded to eventually include areas from Mobile, Alabama, to Freeport, Texas. All watches and warnings on the Gulf Coast were discontinued late on August 26 after the hurricane moved inland over Louisiana.[4]

Due to the hurricane's threat, workers fled oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, while the Coast Guard moved their boats inland.[30] Officials in Mississippi suggested that about 100,000 people evacuate the coastal counties.[31] Shelters were opened in Hancock and Harrison counties, though only 68 people went to a shelter in the former. Gambling ships were moved into harbors and inland canals. Two run-offs for special legislative elections scheduled for August 25 were postponed.[31]

In Louisiana, Governor Edwin Edwards declared a state of emergency.[30] About 1.25 million people evacuated from the central and southeast Louisiana,[4] while approximately 60,000 others fled parishes in southwest Louisiana.[32] A mandatory evacuation from Grand Isle was ordered by Mayor Andy Valence and the city council.[33] In New Orleans, Mayor Sidney Barthelemy ordered the evacuation of about 200,000 residents in the low-lying areas of the city.[34] Nine shelters were opened in the city, which were occupied by thousands of people.[31] In response to computer simulations showing that storm surge from a tropical cyclone like Hurricane Andrew could over-top the levees, workers closed 111 floodgates.[34] The New Orleans International Airport closed, with jumbo jets being flown to other airports. A total of 250 members of the Louisiana National Guard patrolled the streets during the storm. The Red Cross assisted with opening a shelter at the University of Southwest Louisiana's Cajundome in Lafayette, equipped to handle about 2,000 people.[31]

In Texas, about 250,000 people evacuated Orange and Jefferson counties.[4] Galveston City Manager Doug Matthews advised residents to develop an evacuation plan in case the city chose to call for evacuations. The city later decided against ordering an evacuation.[35] School was canceled on August 25 for Beaumont, Port Arthur, and other areas of central Jefferson County, while schools were closed in Dickinson, High Island, Hitchcock, La Marque, Santa Fe, and Texas City on August 26. College of the Mainland, Galveston College, and Texas A&M University at Galveston were also closed.[36] Emergency management crews in Corpus Christi began testing emergency generators and severe weather gear.[37] The Comal County chapter of the Red Cross placed their disaster alert teams on standby and ready to respond if the hurricane threatened the Corpus Christi area.[38]

Impact

Even though Andrew was a small tropical cyclone for most of its lifespan, it caused extreme damage, especially in the Bahamas, Florida, and Louisiana. The vast majority of the damage was as a result of extremely high winds, although a few tornadoes spawned by Andrew caused considerable damage in Louisiana. Throughout the areas affected, almost 177,000 people were left homeless. Outside of the Bahamas, Florida, and Louisiana, effects were widespread, although damage was minimal. Overall, $27.3 billion in losses and 65 fatalities were attributed to Andrew,[4] although many other estimates range as high as $36 billion.[39] Andrew was the costliest hurricane in U.S. history at the time, but is now ninth following hurricanes Katrina (2005), Ike (2008), Sandy (2012), Harvey (2017), Irma (2017), Maria (2017), Ida (2021), and Ian (2022).[40]

Bahamas

See main article: Effects of Hurricane Andrew in The Bahamas. In the Bahamas, Andrew produced hurricane-force winds in North Eleuthera, New Providence, North Andros, Bimini, and the Berry Islands.[41] The storm first struck North Eleuthera,[42] where it produced a high storm surge.[21] At a small village in the northwestern portion of the island, more than half of the houses were destroyed and the rest of the buildings sustained minor to major damage. One person drowned from the surge in Lower Bogue, Eleuthera, and two others died in The Bluff. On Current Island, the hurricane destroyed 24 of the 30 houses.[43] Harbour Island, near Eleuthera, reported wind gusts of 138mph – the strongest gust speed observed in the Bahamas during Andrew's passage.[4] News reports indicated severe damage to 36 houses on Harbor Island.

Andrew produced several tornadoes in the area.[44] At the capital city of Nassau, sustained winds reached 92mph, while gusts up to 115mph were reported.[4] Only minor damage occurred in Nassau, according to the Bahamas Red Cross, but on the private island of Cat Cay, many expensive homes sustained heavy damage.[45] Much of the northwestern Bahamas received damage,[44] with estimated monetary losses reaching $250 million.[4] A total of 800 houses were destroyed, leaving 1,700 people homeless. Additionally, the storm caused severe damage to the sectors of transport, communications, water, sanitation, agriculture, and fishing. Four deaths in the country were attributed to the hurricane, of which three were direct;[4] the indirect fatality was due to heart failure during the passage of the storm.[43]

Florida

See main article: Effects of Hurricane Andrew in Florida. Overall, Andrew caused about $25.3 billion in damage in Florida,[4] making it the costliest hurricane to hit the state at the time.[46] Some estimates in Florida put the damage as high as $34 billion (1992 USD, $  USD).[47] Almost all of the damage in Florida was caused by strong winds, rather than storm surge or flooding that is usually associated with a major hurricane.[48] [4] [49] Of the 44 deaths attributed to the storm, 15 were direct fatalities, while 29 were indirectly caused by the storm. It was later noted that if Andrew had been slightly larger or made landfall a few miles further north, it would have significantly affected Miami and Fort Lauderdale, which would have resulted in an even higher damage and death toll.[4] An analysis by the American Meteorological Society indicated that unlike most hurricanes, wind damage from Andrew was mostly north of the geometric center and occurred primarily on the eastern edge of the storm.[50] Some officials in Florida considered Andrew the worst storm in the state since the Labor Day hurricane in 1935.[51] But most others (particularly the media, former National Hurricane Center director Max Mayfield) in retrospect stated that Andrew was hardly "The Big One",[52] [53] but still very devastating.[54] [55]

The storm surge from Andrew was very limited in its overall coverage due the compactness of the hurricane,[56] [49] although it caused between $96 million and more than $500 million in losses to boats and buildings, based on various sources.[4] [57] [58] At the height of the storm, more than 1.4 million people lost electricity and another 150,000 were without telephone service.[59] It is estimated that throughout Florida, the storm damaged 101,241 homes and destroyed approximately 63,000 others – the vast majority in Dade County – with about 175,000 people rendered homeless.[4] [60] Smaller tropical cyclones like Andrew or Charley tend to produce less overall coverages and damages from the storm surge, in contrast to hurricanes such as Hugo, Ike, Ivan, and Katrina.[61] In addition to homes, the storm damaged or destroyed 82,000 businesses, 32900acres of farmland, 31 public schools, 59 health facilities/hospitals, 9,500 traffic signals, 3300miles of power lines, and 3,000 watermains.[59] Approximately 20 million cubic yards (15 million m3) of debris left by the storm were disposed of.[62]

Tides were generally between 4and above normal in the Biscayne Bay area, though near the Burger King International Headquarters, tides reached as high as 16.9feet above normal. Storm surge on the west coast was widespread but generally light, with a peak height of 6feet in Everglades City and Goodland. Strong winds from the storm were confined to a relatively small area, stretching from Key Largo to the Miami Beach area. A house near Perrine initially reported a wind gust of 212mph before the structure and instrument were destroyed; this measurement was reduced to 177mph, after wind-tunnel testing at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University of the same type of anemometer revealed a 16.5% error. Several other anemometers measuring the highest wind speeds on land were destroyed or failed. At the National Hurricane Center building in Coral Gables, sustained winds of 115mph and gusts to 164mph were measured before the anemometer failed. The highest sustained wind speed for the storm was 146mph, recorded at the Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station, before instruments also failed there. In Key Largo, a 13-minute wind speed of 114mph was reported. Tropical storm force winds reached as far north as West Palm Beach. On the west coast of Florida, sustained winds remained just below tropical storm force on Marco Island, though a wind gust of 100mph was reported in Collier County. Rainfall was generally light, possibly as a result of the storm's relatively fast movement.[4] Overall, precipitation from Andrew peaked at nearly 14inches in western Dade County. Heavy rainfall in other areas was sporadic, with precipitation reported as far north as Central Florida.[15] Although effects from Andrew were catastrophic, the extent of damage was limited mainly from Kendall to Key Largo due to the small wind field of the storm. The hurricane destroyed 90% of mobile homes in the county, including 99% of mobile homes in Homestead.[4] At the Homestead Air Force Base, most of the 2,000 buildings on the base were severely damaged or rendered unusable.[63] Damage to the base was extensive enough that it was recommended for closure. Nearby, in the small town of Florida City, over 120 homes were demolished and 700 others were damaged, while a number of other buildings were damaged beyond repair, including City Hall.[64] Further north, damage to poorly constructed homes in communities such as Country Walk and Saga Bay resembled that of an F3 tornado. Winds in the area were estimated to have ranged from 130to, slightly below the threshold for an F3 tornado.[65] Four of the five condominiums at Naranja Lakes were destroyed. The Cutler Ridge Mall suffered severe wind and water damage; after the storm, significant looting was reported at that location.[66] More than 50 streets were blocked by fallen trees and power lines.[67] Agriculture suffered extensively as well, with an 85% loss to fruit crops such as avocados, limes, and mangoes. Crop damage in Dade County totaled about $509 million.[68] The county suffered the vast majority of the damage from the hurricane, totaling approximately $25 billion. Andrew left at least 40 deaths in the county, 15 direct and 25 indirect.[4] Elsewhere, effects were relatively minimal, except in Broward, Monroe, and Collier counties. In Broward County, on the north side of the storm's path, damage in several municipalities was primarily limited to downed trees, several of which fell onto roads and power lines. In Pembroke Park, one of the worst affected cities in the county, approximately 260 mobile homes were damaged. Storm surge left coastal flooding in some areas, especially along state roads A1A and 858.[69] Property damage reached about $100 million and three fatalities were reported in Broward County.[4] In Everglades National Park and Biscayne National Park, more than 25% of trees were damaged or destroyed, including one-fourth of the royal palms and one-third of the pine trees in the former.[70] In addition to the damage at Everglades National Park, effects in Monroe County were significant, especially in the Upper Florida Keys. Strong winds damaged billboards, awnings, commercial signs, several boats, planes, trees,[71] and 1,500 homes, with 300 of those becoming uninhabitable.[26] Damage in that county was about $131 million.[4] In Collier County, to the north of the storm's path, sustained winds up to 98mph were observed in Chokoloskee.[72] Storm surge flooded low-lying areas, particularly in Goodland, Everglades City, and Marco Island. Many boats were damaged or destroyed by the rough seas and strong winds.[73] The storm destroyed 80 mobile homes and severely damaged 400 others.[74] Property damage in the county reached about $30 million.[4]

Louisiana

After hitting Florida, Andrew moved across the Gulf of Mexico and made landfall about 23miles west-southwest of Morgan City in south-central Louisiana; at landfall, the maximum sustained winds were 115mph. The highest sustained wind speed observed was 96mph, while a wind gust as strong as 120mph was recorded; both measurements were taken at the fire station in Berwick. As it moved ashore, the hurricane produced storm tides of at least 8feet above normal, causing flooding along the coast from Vermilion Bay to Lake Borgne.[4] Offshore, a group of six fishermen from Alabama drowned. Heavy rains accompanied the storm's passage through the state, peaking at 11.02inches in Robert.[4] River flooding was also reported, with the Tangipahoa River in Robert cresting at 3.8feet above flood stage. Before making landfall, Andrew spawned an F3 tornado in LaPlace, which killed two people and injured 32.[4] The tornado was on the ground for about 10 minutes, during which it damaged or destroyed 163 structures, leaving 60 families homeless.[75] Collectively, 14 tornadoes were reported in the parishes of Ascension, Iberville, Pointe Coupee, and Avoyelles, as well as in Baton Rouge.[4]

Along the Louisiana coastline, damages largely resembled those of a Category 2 hurricane. Damage was heaviest in St. Mary Parish, about 32miles east of where Andrew made landfall. Twenty-six schools were affected, with damage totaling $2.6 million. Berwick High School, sheltering about 2,000 people, was deroofed during the storm. Generally, single-family homes fared well, with most losing only roofing shingles, though others suffered severe damage after large trees fell on them. In Cypremort Point State Park, several mobile homes were destroyed.[76] Houses in Berwick, Morgan City, and Patterson suffered major damage. Throughout the parish, 1,367 dwellings were destroyed, 2,028 were severely damaged, and 4,770 others were impacted to a minor degree. Property damage alone in St. Mary Parish reached approximately $150 million. Iberia Parish was also among the most severely impacted parishes. Two schools collectively sheltering about 3,600 people in Jeanerette and New Iberia lost their roofs. One death occurred in the parish due to electrocution. A total of 407 residences were demolished, 2,528 others were extensively damaged, and 3,526 others were inflicted with minor damage. Overall, the parish suffered $125 million in property damage, while an additional $200 million in damage was inflicted on sugar crops.

Across the state, the hurricane damaged 23,000 homes and destroyed 985 homes and 1,951 mobile homes; private property damage was estimated at $1 billion. The high winds destroyed large areas of sugar and soybean crops, estimated at $289 million in damage. Strong winds also left at least 230,000 people without electricity. During the storm's passage, upwelling occurred in the Atchafalaya Basin and Bayou Lafourche, killing 187 million freshwater fish. Damage to the fishing industry was estimated at $266 million. Overall, losses in the state of Louisiana reached approximately $1.56 billion.[77] A total of 17 deaths occurred in Louisiana, 8 directly and 9 from indirect causes.[4] At least 75 injuries were reported.[78]

Remainder of the United States

While Andrew was entering the Gulf of Mexico, oil companies evacuated hundreds of employees from offshore drilling platforms.[79] The storm damaged 241 oil and gas facilities and toppled 33 platforms off the coast of Louisiana,[80] causing significant disruptions in production. Additionally, 83 pipeline segments suffered damage to some degree. The oil industry lost about $12 million per day in the days following Andrew and $4 million daily by three weeks later.[80] Initially, a production loss of 240,000 to 270,000 barrels per day occurred – approximately one-third of production throughout the Gulf of Mexico.[81] Overall, Hurricane Andrew caused about $500 million in damage to oil facilities.[4]

As Andrew moved ashore in Louisiana, its outer fringes produced a storm tide of about 1.3feet in Sabine Pass, Texas. Winds were generally light in the state, reaching 30mph in Port Arthur.[4] As Andrew crossed into Mississippi, 3 severe thunderstorm warnings, 21 tornado warnings, and 16 flood warnings were issued. Funnel clouds were observed near the path of the storm,[82] along with 26 tornadoes.[83] Structural damage was generally minimal, occurring from the tornadoes and severe thunderstorms. One tornado in Kemper County destroyed a mobile home, while another twister in Lauderdale County demolished a mobile home, damaged five other dwellings, and injured four people.[84] Additionally, a possible tornado damaged a home and two trailers in Lawrence County.[82] Strong winds knocked down trees in the southwestern portion of the state.[82] Much of Mississippi received 3to of rain, while areas near the southwest corner of the state observed over 7inches of precipitation,[85] with a peak of 9.3inches at Sumrall.[86] Flooding was mostly limited to the inundation of minor roads and low-lying areas in several counties.[85]

In Alabama, precipitation amounts in the state peaked at 4.71inches in Aliceville.[86] The rainfall caused flooding in low-lying areas and creeks, covering a few county roads but not entering many houses or businesses.[85] Along the coast, the storm produced flooding and high tides.[87] Along Dauphin Island, high tides left severe beach erosion, with portions of the island losing up to 30feet of sand.[87] Three damaging tornadoes occurred in the state. The most damaging tornado was spawned in Elmore County and moved from an area northeast of Montgomery to the south of Wetumpka and briefly lifted during its 0.5miles track. The tornado destroyed 2 homes and damaged 18 homes, 1 mobile home, 2 barns, and 1 vehicle. One person was injured by the twister.[77] Sustained winds in the state were below tropical storm force, though a wind gust of 41mph was observed in Huntsville.[4] Although 48 counties in Alabama reported wind damage, impact across the state was generally minor.[87]

Tropical storm force wind gusts and damaging tornadoes extended eastward into Georgia. Several counties in the northwest and west-central portions of the state reported downed trees and tree limbs and fallen power lines, causing scattered power outages, but structural damage was generally minor. In Carroll County, several dwellings and barns were damaged, with one mobile home destroyed. At the Columbus Metropolitan Airport, buildings, billboards, and signs were damaged. Additionally, a tornado in Floyd County near Rome snapped and uprooted several trees, damaged several fences and homes, and flipped over a trailer, tossing it on top of four cars.[77] Monetary losses in the state reached about $100,000.[4] In Tennessee, thunderstorm winds and tornadoes associated with Andrew downed trees and power lines, but caused little overall impact to homes and buildings. Similarly, in North Carolina, thunderstorm winds toppled trees and power lines at a number of locations in the mountainous areas of the state, especially in Avery County. Rainfall from Andrew spread across the southeastern United States along the Appalachian Mountains corridor; totals of over 5inches were reported where Georgia and South Carolina meet North Carolina.[15] In West Virginia, the remnants of Andrew combined with a cold front to produce 1.5to of rain over portions of the state, causing flooding in areas of Morgantown with poor drainage. The remnants of Andrew also spawned several tornadoes in Maryland. A tornado in Howard County damaged several homes, some extensively. The twister also tossed and wrecked a recreational vehicle and its trailer, downed trees, and flattened cornfields.[77] Precipitation continued along the path of Andrew's remnants through the Mid-Atlantic and Ohio Valley, with precipitation measured as far north as Upstate New York.[15]

Aftermath

Bahamas

Initially, the Bahamas National Disaster Coordinator believed that foreign aid was not required, but shortly after the storm, the Government of the United Kingdom began distributing blankets, food, ice, and water., a Royal Navy Type 42 destroyer, was the operational guard ship at the time and assisted in relief operations in and around the Gregorytown area.[21] [88] In addition, assistance came from Canada, Japan, and the United States, as well as the United Nations. The American Red Cross delivered 100 tents, 100 rolls of plastic sheeting, and 1,000 cots.[88] Rebuilding began quickly on the hardest hit islands. However, trees and vegetation were expected to take years to recover. Despite reconstruction efforts and the small number of resort lodgings affected (around 2%), officials expected a 10–20% decline in tourism.[45] The Bahamian Government, observing that their response mechanisms were not sufficient, reformed the National Emergency and Management Agency.[89]

United States

After assessing the devastation in Florida and Louisiana, U.S. President George H. W. Bush initially proposed a $7.1 billion aid package to provide disaster benefits, small-business loans, agricultural recovery, food stamps, and public housing for victims of Hurricane Andrew.[90] After the House of Representatives appropriated aid to victims of Hurricane Iniki in Hawaii and Typhoon Omar in Guam, the cost was later increased to $11.1 billion. The bill, which was the most costly disaster aid package at the time, was passed by Congress as House Resolution 5620 on September 18,[91] and signed into law by President Bush on September 23.[92] The state of Florida alone received $9 billion through the disaster relief bill.[93]

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was criticized for its slow response in both Florida and Louisiana. Even a month prior to Andrew, the House Committee on Appropriations – which oversees the budget for FEMA – released a report calling the agency a "political dumping ground" and a "turkey farm" due to its "weak, inexperienced leaders". Congressman S. William Green of New York, a member of the Appropriations Committee, stated that he believed the agency learned little from its botched response to Hurricane Hugo in 1989. However, Green also criticized local officials for expecting "them [FEMA] to come and run the whole show". Some FEMA officials responded that it was impossible to respond as they had been requested while also continuing to provide aid for the Los Angeles riots. FEMA spokesman Grant Peterson stated, "24 hours is not reasonable to expect to have all the resources of the federal government landing in the middle of a disaster."[94] Some responsibility for the slow response must rest with Florida Governor Lawton Chiles, who waited five days to submit the formal request for Federal assistance that FEMA officials believed was required before they were empowered to act.[95]

Florida

In Florida, President Bush assessed damage in areas south of Miami with Florida Governor Lawton Chiles.[51] The president quickly declared the region a disaster area, which provided public assistance to victims of the storm in Broward, Collier, Dade, and Monroe Counties.[96] Lieutenant Governor Buddy MacKay flew over the impact area and described the scene as looking "like a war zone".[97] Governor Chiles considered asking the Florida State Legislature to raise taxes, stating that "No matter how much Congress appropriates to repair damage from Hurricane Andrew, the state will face a substantial cleanup bill".[90] Instead of raising taxes, Chiles signed a bill into law on December 17 that created a three-year reserve fund for losses to uninsured businesses and homes, as well as government and school buildings and functions. Additionally, the bill allowed South Floridians to keep an estimated $500 million in sales tax generated by rebuilding efforts.[98] Crime, especially looting and theft, rose sharply in the areas south of Miami immediately after Andrew. Reports indicate that merchandise was stolen at damaged or destroyed shopping centers in southern Dade County. Additionally, looting occurred in neighborhoods severely affected by the storm, even in homes where few possessions remained.[99] [100] Initially, the slow response of federal aid prompted Dade County Emergency Management Director Kate Hale to famously exclaim at a nationally televised news conference, "Where in the hell is the cavalry on this one? They keep saying we're going to get supplies. For God's sake, where are they?" Almost immediately, President Bush promised, "Help is on the way," and mobile kitchens, food, and tents, along with over 20,000 units from the Florida Army National Guard (124th Infantry Regiment from Florida); the 24th Infantry Division from Fort Stewart, the 82nd Airborne Division and logistical support soldiers from the 1st Corps Support Command's 189th Maintenance Battalion from Fort Bragg, and the 10th Mountain Division from Fort Drum.[101] [102] In order to provide temporary housing for the homeless, military personnel initially set up a total of five tent cities in Florida City and Homestead,[103] while a sixth tent city was opened at the Miccosukee Indian Reservation shortly after Labor Day weekend.[104] The Government of Canada dispatched a team 90 military engineers to repair community centers, hospitals, and schools. Additionally, a crew of 300 military personnel were sent to Miami via HMCS Protecteur to assist American relief teams.[105]

The storm struck Florida in the midst of 1992 presidential election campaign. A poll conducted by CBS News in September showed that 65% of Dade County residents approved of Bush's handling of the disaster, while 61% of residents approved statewide. Despite the support of Bush's response and his proposal to rebuild Homestead Air Force Base, he benefited little politically and trailed 48–42% against Bill Clinton in another poll taken in September. Additionally, 75% of voters in Dade County and 82% of Floridians overall stated that the president's actions in response to Andrew would not impact their vote in November.[106] Bush went on to carry the state of Florida, but by a margin of only 1.89%.[107] The hurricane also impacted Governor Chiles politically. The state's response to the storm was perceived as poor, sinking Chiles' approval rating to 22%, while his disapproval rating rose to 76%. However, Chiles was able to recover prior to the 1994 gubernatorial election.[108]

In the aftermath of the storm, extensive psychological effects were documented. Difficulty during clean-up and recovery led to increased divorce rates and a spike in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The cases of PTSD primarily impacted children. A sampling of 378 adolescents by the University of South Carolina's Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics indicated that 3% of males and 9% of females met the criteria for PTSD.[109] Dozens of children in the area attempted suicide, while counselors reported that between 50 and 60 children discussed killing themselves between December 1992 and January 1993.[110] A panel of psychiatrists and psychologists at the University of Miami agreed that as many as 90% of residents in the worst impacted areas would experience at least a few symptoms of PTSD.[111] Within six months, the circumstances related to the aftermath of Andrew led to at least five suicides and four homicides.[112] Although proposals to rebuild Homestead Air Force Base were initially rejected,[113] the United States Department of Defense eventually expended over $100 million to begin repairs. Unsalvageable buildings were demolished. Reconstruction then began on a Florida Air National Guard tower, air traffic control tower, and maintenance hangars. Next, the rebuilding of communications, medical, security facility, vehicle maintenance, and wing headquarters buildings began. On March 5, 1994, the base reopened as Homestead Air Reserve Base.[114] Prior to Andrew, the base employed approximately 6,500 military personnel and 1,000 civilians and annually added about $450 million to the local economy.[115] [116] After its reopening, Major Bobby D'Angelo expected the base to annually contribute less than half of that – between $180 million and $200 million.[116] The city of Homestead spent about $6 million on rebuilding the Homestead Sports Complex. Despite this, the Cleveland Indians, fearing the relocation of their more affluent fans, moved their spring training location to Chain of Lakes Park in Winter Haven.[117] As homes were being rebuilt, FEMA provided free temporary mobile homes for 3,501 families and financial assistance to more than 40,000 other families for staying in hotel rooms, paying rent, and repairing homes.[118] Nearly two years after Andrew, about 70% of homes in Homestead that were damaged or destroyed were repaired or rebuilt. Additionally, of the homes destroyed or severely damaged throughout Dade County, 36,000 had been restored by July 1994.[119]

More than 930,000 policyholders in South Florida lost coverage after 11 insurance companies went bankrupt, caused by more than 600,000 insurance claims filed. This led the Florida Legislature to create new entities, such as the Joint Underwriting Association, the Florida Windstorm Underwriting Association, and the Florida Hurricane Catastrophe Fund, in an effort to restore adequate insurance capacity.[120] Stricter building codes were created in Florida in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew. A survey by Tim Marshall and Richard Herzog of the Haag Engineer Company in Carrollton, Texas, highlighted several construction issues. On the roof of some homes, the concrete tiles were glued to felt paper, which could easily be ripped by straight line winds. At houses with shingled roofs, it was found that some of the shingles were stapled perpendicular to the long axis, also allowing them to be torn away. After the tiles or shingles were peeled off, the plywood and prefabricated trusses were exposed to the weather. Eventually, the plywood and the trusses suffered structural failure, leading to roof collapses.[121]

In July 1996, Governor Chiles established the Florida Building Codes Study Commission, with the purpose of assessing the building codes at the time, as well as enacting improvements and reform to the system. The commission study indicated that building codes and regulations were developed, amended, and administered by over 400 local jurisdictions and state agencies.[122] The Florida Building Code was established in 1998 and put into effect by 2002.[123] It phased out local laws and regulations and replaced them with universal statewide building codes. After hurricanes Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne in 2004, a study conducted by the University of Florida in the following year noted that "Homes built under the new Florida Building Code that became effective in 2002 sustained less damage on average than those built between 1994 and 2001." A report by the Florida Legislature in 2006 after hurricanes Dennis, Katrina, and Wilma in 2005 came to a similar conclusion, indicating that "they added further evidence that the Florida Building Code is working."[124]

The hurricane also transformed the demographics of Dade County. A migration of mostly White families northward to Broward and Palm Beach County was ongoing, but accelerated after Andrew. Many of these families had used the money they received from insurance claims to relocate.[125] The population growth was especially noticeable in southwestern Broward County, where land development was pushed "years ahead of schedule".[126] Similar migration occurred within the Jewish community. Although there are areas of Dade County that still have significant Jewish populations, many Jews resettled to Coral Springs, west Fort Lauderdale, Hallandale Beach, Plantation, and Tamarac in Broward County and Boca Raton and West Palm Beach in Palm Beach County.[127] The county had a net loss of about 36,000 people in 1992, while Broward and Palm Beach counties gained about 17,000 and 2,300 Dade County residents, respectively.[128] By 2001, 230,710 people had moved from Dade County to Broward County, while 29,125 Dade County residents had moved to Palm Beach County. However, as Broward County became more crowded, 100,871 people relocated from Broward County to Palm Beach County.[129] Consequently, the Hispanic population in south Dade County climbed rapidly.[125] In Homestead, for example, the Latino population increased from 30% to 45% between 1990 and 2000.[130]

During the storm, a facility housing Burmese pythons was destroyed, allowing many of them to escape into the Everglades. Although Burmese pythons – native to Southeast Asia – had been sighted in Everglades National Park since the 1980s, the destruction of this facility contributed significantly to the establishment of breeding populations in Florida. Due to rapid reproduction and ability to prey on many species,[131] the population of Burmese pythons exploded, with possibly as many as 300,000 in the Everglades alone.[132] Efforts have been made to curb the thriving population of these invasive snakes, including a ban on importation of the species to the United States since January 2012 and increased regulations on ownership of a boa constrictor or python.[133] [134]

Louisiana

On August 26, George H. W. Bush toured devastated areas of Louisiana with Governor Edwin Edwards.[135] President Bush remarked, "The destruction from this storm goes beyond anything we have known in recent years," but noted that damage was less severe than in Florida. After his visit to Louisiana, President Bush declared only Terrebonne Parish as a disaster area,[136] but later included 34 other parishes under this declaration.[137] FEMA initially opened five field offices throughout Louisiana. These centers allowed residents to submit applications for aid.[138] After Franklin mayor Sam Jones and Congressman Billy Tauzin criticized FEMA for failing to open a field office in Franklin, FEMA promised to do so. In the first few days following the storm, Louisiana National Guard members and local residents worked to remove debris such as downed trees, roofing shingles, and torn aluminum siding. The state National Guard also dispatched water purification units and tanks with filled potable water.[139] About 1,300 National Guardsmen were deployed to southern Louisiana.

In early September, officials announced that 1,400 mobile homes, homes, and apartments would become available to residents whose dwellings became uninhabitable.[140] House Resolution 5620 also included disaster aid to the state of Louisiana.[91] [92] In early December, the Small Business Administration (SBA) approved $33.2 million worth of low-interest loans for repairs to homes and businesses. By then, FEMA had received about 43,600 applications for aid, while approving $35.9 million in grants to over 18,000 households that were ineligible for loans from the SBA or were uninsured. In addition to the mobile homes already provided, FEMA spent $22.6 million on disaster housing.[141]

Retirement

See also: List of retired Atlantic hurricane names. Due to the hurricane's impact and damage, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Andrew from its rotating Atlantic hurricane name lists in the spring of 1993, and it will never again be used for another Atlantic hurricane. It was replaced with Alex the 1998 season.[142] [143] [144]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Kym Klass. The Wrath of Hurricane Andrew on Biscayne Bay. Islander Media. May 21, 2021. October 10, 2021. Key Biscayne, Florida.
  2. News: Hurricane Andrew – The Diary of Devastation. October 11, 2005. David Olinger. Tampa Bay Times. October 10, 2021.
  3. Web site: By the numbers: Michael ranked as 3rd-most intense hurricane to hit continental US. July 10, 2019. Brian Lada. AccuWeather. October 11, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181012014601/https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/by-the-numbers-michael-ranked-as-3rd-most-intense-hurricane-to-hit-continental-us/70006313. October 12, 2018. live.
  4. Edward Rappaport. December 10, 1993. Hurricane Andrew. Preliminary Report. National Hurricane Center. June 21, 2012. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Miami, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20160906055141/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1992andrew.html. September 6, 2016. live.
  5. Max Mayfield. August 17, 1992. Tropical Depression Three discussion one. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. June 21, 2012. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. National Hurricane Center. Miami, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112101/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.001. October 22, 2012. live.
  6. Edward Rappaport. August 18, 1992. Tropical Storm Andrew discussion five. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. National Hurricane Center. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. June 21, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112108/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.005. October 22, 2012. live.
  7. Miles Lawrence. August 20, 1992. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. Tropical Storm Andrew discussion thirteen. National Hurricane Center. June 21, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120410194625/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.013. April 10, 2012. live.
  8. Max Mayfield. August 21, 1992. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. Tropical Storm Andrew discussion twenty. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. National Hurricane Center. June 21, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112125/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.020. October 22, 2012. live.
  9. Max Mayfield. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. August 22, 1992. Hurricane Andrew discussion twenty-three. National Hurricane Center. June 21, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112137/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.023. October 22, 2012. live.
  10. 10.1175/BAMS-85-11-1699. Christopher Landsea. James Franklin. Colin McAdie. John Beven II. James Gross. Brain Jarvinen. Richard Pasch. Edward Rappaport. Jason Dunion. Peter Dodge. November 2004. A re-analysis of Hurricane Andrew's intensity. June 22, 2012. 1707–1708. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 85. 11. 2004BAMS...85.1699L. https://web.archive.org/web/20120614043512/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/landseabams2004.pdf. June 14, 2012. live.
  11. Christopher Landsea. August 20, 2009. Aren't big tropical cyclones also intense tropical cyclones?. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. June 21, 2012. Miami, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20120731202157/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C3.html. July 31, 2012. live.
  12. Edward Rappaport. Harold Gerrish. Richard Pasch. August 23, 1992. 11 p.m. EDT Sunday. Hurricane Andrew discussion thirty-one. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. National Hurricane Center. June 21, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112151/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.031. October 22, 2012. live.
  13. Web site: John L. Beven II . Robbie Berg . Andrew Hagan. April 19, 2019. [{{NHC TCR url|id=AL142018_Michael}} Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Michael]. April 19, 2019. NOAA. PDF . National Hurricane Center.
  14. Lixion Avila. Max Mayfield. August 24, 1992. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. Hurricane Andrew discussion thirty-five. National Hurricane Center. June 21, 2012. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. https://web.archive.org/web/20121020151921/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.035. October 20, 2012. live.
  15. Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima Rainfall Data. http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/andrew1992.html. Hurricane Andrew – August 23–28, 1992. May 2, 2007. David Roth. Weather Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. June 21, 2012. College Park, Maryland. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060536/http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/andrew1992.html. March 4, 2016. live.
  16. Web site: Michael Dickinson and L. F. Bosart and K. L. Corbosiero . 2006 . The extratropical transitions of eastern Pacific Hurricane Lester (1992) and Atlantic Hurricane Andrew (1992) . American Meteorological Society . January 26, 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20061004194551/http://ams.confex.com/ams/27Hurricanes/techprogram/paper_108829.htm . October 4, 2006 . dead .
  17. Web site: Florida Historical Society . 2003 . Today in Florida's History . January 31, 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151047/http://list.florida-historical-soc.org/pipermail/fhstoday/2003-August/001097.html . September 28, 2007 .
  18. Max Mayfield. August 23, 1992. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. Hurricane Andrew discussion thirty. National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. June 21, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112143/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/tropdisc/nal0492.030. October 22, 2012. live.
  19. News: Andrew heads through Bahamas toward Miami. Jane Sutton. August 23, 1992. United Press International. June 2, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170808075254/http://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/08/23/Andrew-heads-through-Bahamas-toward-Miami/4403714542400/. August 8, 2017. live.
  20. Hurricane Andrew public advisory thirty . August 23, 1992 . 5 p.m. EDT . Max Mayfield . Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives . Miami, Florida . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service . National Hurricane Center . May 8, 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20111121085103/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/public/pal0492.030 . November 21, 2011 . live .
  21. News: Jonathan Freedland . September 2, 1992 . Storm ravaged island in Bahamas . . . Washington, D.C. . December 8, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20111005042654/http://tech.mit.edu/V112/N36/bahamas.36w.html . October 5, 2011 . live .
  22. Hurricane Andrew special advisory number twenty-seven . Harold Gerrish . National Hurricane Center . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service . August 23, 1992 . May 8, 2012 . Miami, Florida . https://web.archive.org/web/20131216163328/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/public/pal0492.027 . December 16, 2013 . live .
  23. Hurricane Andrew advisory number thirty-one . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service . National Hurricane Center . Edward Rappaport . Richard Pasch . Harold Gerrish . August 24, 1992 . May 8, 2012 . Miami, Florida . https://web.archive.org/web/20111121075436/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/public/pal0492.031 . November 21, 2011 . live .
  24. Hurricane Andrew assessment – Florida. January 1993 . ((Post, Buckley, Schuh & Jernigan, Inc.)) . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . 31, 32, 43, and 44 . May 31, 2017 . dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20120305094502/http://www.csc.noaa.gov/hes/docs/postStorm/H_ANDREW_ASSESSMENT_REVIEW_HES_UTILIZATION_INFO_DISSEMINATION.pdf . March 5, 2012 .
  25. Post storm hurricane report updated . Paul J. Hebert . September 3, 1992 . 3 . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service . . May 31, 2017 . Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives . GIF . https://web.archive.org/web/20170810091910/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/pshmia03.gif . August 10, 2017 . live .
  26. Hurricane Andrew Post Storm Report . Dennis Henize . August 30, 1992 . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service . National Weather Service Key West, Florida . May 8, 2012 . Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives . Key West, Florida . GIF . https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235858/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/psheyw.gif . December 30, 2013 . live .
  27. News: Storm: Andrew could be strongest . August 26, 1992 . 3A . . May 31, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034141/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/dn0826p2.gif . March 4, 2016 . live .
  28. News: Winds rip Bahamas, head for U.S. . Gary Kane . August 24, 1992 . . 9A . June 3, 2017 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20170810091140/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11450937/the_palm_beach_post/ . August 10, 2017 . live .
  29. News: 'A Mike Tyson storm' unpredictable Hurricane Andrew caught South Florida off guard. Seth Borenstein. August 24, 1992. Sun-Sentinel. June 3, 2017. Deerfield Beach, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810091035/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1992-08-24/news/9201170556_1_hurricane-forecasters-tropical-storm-national-hurricane-center. August 10, 2017. live.
  30. News: Hurricane rips into Louisiana. Douglas Frantz and Glenn Bunting. August 26, 1992. Los Angeles Times. 1. May 30, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20180502213458/http://articles.latimes.com/1992-08-26/news/mn-5918_1_morgan-city. May 2, 2018. live.
  31. News: Hurricane rips into Louisiana. Douglas Frantz and Glenn Bunting. August 26, 1992. Los Angeles Times. 2. May 30, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20180502213313/http://articles.latimes.com/1992-08-26/news/mn-5918_1_morgan-city/2. May 2, 2018. live.
  32. Final Storm Report ... Hurricane Andrew ... correction for date. September 4, 1992. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. National Weather Service Lake Charles, Louisiana. May 31, 2017. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20121025120343/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/pshlch01.gif. October 25, 2012. live.
  33. News: Mayors of N.O., Grand Isle call for preparedness. August 27, 1992. Associated Press. Miami Herald. 1. May 30, 2017. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20181215123341/https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/mh0827p2.gif. December 15, 2018. live.
  34. News: Gulf coast gets ready. Alan Sayre. Associated Press. Standard-Speaker. 2. August 25, 1992. May 31, 2017. Hazleton, Pennsylvania. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20190120043231/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11373927/standardspeaker/. January 20, 2019. live.
  35. News: Islanders advised to remain. Lora Bernard. August 26, 1992. The Daily News. 1. May 31, 2017. Galveston, Texas. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810092140/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11373607/the_galveston_daily_news/. August 10, 2017. live.
  36. News: At a glance. August 26, 1992. The Daily News. 10. May 31, 2017. Galveston, Texas. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810092124/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11373858/the_galveston_daily_news/. August 10, 2017. live.
  37. News: Hurricane Andrew threatens Texas coast. August 25, 1992. Associated Press. New Braunfels Herald-Zeitung. 2. May 31, 2017. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810092132/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11371602/new_braunfels_heraldzeitung/. August 10, 2017. live.
  38. News: Local agency preparing for evacuations. Stephanie Ferguson. August 25, 1992. New Braunfels Herald-Zeitung. 1. May 31, 2017. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810091642/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11371677/new_braunfels_heraldzeitung/. August 10, 2017. live.
  39. Book: Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Springer Science & Business Media. June 10, 2017. Chapter 29. The Economic Consequences of Disasters due to Asteroid and Comet Impacts. Peter T. Bobrowsky. 978-3540327110. Hans Rickman. https://books.google.com/books?id=Gpwgm022ltMC&pg=PA483. April 3, 2020. New York City, New York.
  40. The deadliest, costliest and most intense United States tropical cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (and other frequently requested hurricane facts). Eric Blake. Christopher Landsea. Ethan Gibney. 47. August 10, 2011. August 10, 2011. NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-6. National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Miami, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20121221124852/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/nws-nhc-6.pdf. December 21, 2012. live.
  41. Arthur Rolle. Nassau, Bahamas. October 30, 1992. Hurricane Andrew in the Bahamas. 2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Bahamas Meteorological Service. October 11, 2008. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223901/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/bahamas2.gif. March 3, 2016. live.
  42. Edward Rappaport. February 7, 2005. Hurricane Andrew Report Addendum. Miami, Florida. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. May 8, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20141219040743/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1992andrew_add.html. December 19, 2014. live.
  43. Arthur Rolle. Nassau, Bahamas. October 30, 1992. Hurricane Andrew in the Bahamas. 4. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Bahamas Meteorological Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. October 12, 2008. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20111121083458/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/bahamas4.gif. November 21, 2011. live.
  44. Arthur Rolle. Nassau, Bahamas. October 30, 1992. Hurricane Andrew in the Bahamas. 3. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Bahamas Meteorological Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. October 11, 2008. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303211106/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/bahamas3.gif. March 3, 2016. live.
  45. News: Edwin McDowell. September 27, 1992. After the storms: three reports; Bahamas. The New York Times. June 29, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170905182726/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/27/travel/after-the-storms-three-reports-bahamas.html?pagewanted=all. September 5, 2017. live.
  46. News: Changes in wind for hurricane insurance discounts calculators. February 10, 2010. Florida Today. Matt Reed. Column. September 30, 2015. Melbourne, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20151001014604/http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20100202/COLUMNISTS0207/2020311/Changes-wind-hurricane-insurance-discounts-calculators. October 1, 2015. dead.
  47. Book: The Focus on Terrorism. September 16, 2018. 9781590332849. Edward V. Linden. Nova Science Publishers. 50. 2002. New York City, New York.
  48. News: Hurricane Idalia Strengthens, Other Florida Hurricanes. The Yahoo News. January 24, 2024.
  49. Ann Bostrom. Rebecca E. Morss. Jeffrey K. Lazo. Julie L. Demuth. Heather Lazrus. Rebecca Hudson. April 2016. 124. A Mental Models Studies of Hurricane Forecast and Warning Production. Weather, Climate, and Society. 1948-8335. 8. 2. 10.1175/WCAS-D-15-0033.1. 55438976 . free.
  50. Roger Wakimoto. Peter Black. February 1994. Damage survey of Hurricane Andrew and its relationship to the eyewall. 75. 2. 189 and 193. 1520-0477 . 10.1175/1520-0477(1994)075<0189:DSOHAA>2.0.CO;2. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 1994BAMS...75..189W. free.
  51. News: Andrew aims for Gulf Coast. A4. August 25, 1992. Mesa Tribune. May 9, 2012. GIF. Tempe, Arizona. https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000200/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/mt0825p2.gif. December 31, 2013. live.
  52. News: Hurricane Andrew – The Legacy. Greg Allen. August 23, 2012. National Public Radio. October 10, 2021.
  53. News: Andrew is Hardly the Big One. August 19, 2012. Sheila Stieglitz. The Miami Community News. October 10, 2021.
  54. News: Miami-Dade map changes affect Keys. 2A. Kevin Wadlow. Florida Keys Keynoter. May 25, 2013. October 10, 2021. Marathon, Florida.
  55. News: August 24, 2017. Hurricane Andrew – Monster Storm Who Devastated South Florida. ABC News. Julio Jacobo. October 10, 2021.
  56. News: Max Mayfield: Reflections on Hurricane Andrew 25 years later. August 24, 2017. WPLG. October 10, 2021.
  57. Hurricane Damage to Residential Structures: Risk and Mitigation (Natural Hazards Research Working Paper #94). November 1996. John K. Ayscue. The Natural Hazards Center. Johns Hopkins University. October 10, 2021.
  58. News: Andrew hits with horrific vengeance. 2. Associated Press. August 24, 1992. The News-Sentinel. Fort Wayne, Indiana. June 22, 2012. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20151117231337/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/fw0824p2.gif. November 17, 2015. live.
  59. News: Hurricane facts. 47. September 24, 1994. Sarasota Herald-Tribune. May 9, 2012. Google News. https://web.archive.org/web/20151119110439/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mCAfAAAAIBAJ&sjid=P30EAAAAIBAJ&pg=3668,3958333&dq. November 19, 2015. live.
  60. News: The hurricane that changed everything. John Dorschner. 1. August 30, 1992. The Miami Herald. May 9, 2012. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233803/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/mh0828p1.gif. December 30, 2013. live.
  61. Hurricane Ike Storm Surge. June 9, 2009. Rice University. 12. October 10, 2021.
  62. Book: David Godschalk. Timothy Beatley. Philip Berke. David Brower. Edward Kaiser. Natural hazard mitigation: recasting disaster policy and planning. Island Press. 1999. 978-1-55963-602-5. 114. Washington, DC. June 1, 2012.
  63. News: At least 10 killed; City under curfew. 1. William Booth. Mary Jordan. August 25, 1992. Washington, D.C.. The Washington Post. May 9, 2012. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20140714142252/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/wp0825p1.gif. July 14, 2014. live.
  64. News: A city reborn. May 29, 2001. Boca Raton News. Associated Press. May 24, 2017. Google News.
  65. Michael Koziara. September 10, 1992. Hurricane Andrew Damage Assessment. 3. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Weather Service New Orleans, Louisiana. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. June 8, 2017. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042416/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/newdam03.gif. March 4, 2016. live.
  66. News: Debartolo rebuilding damaged Fla. mall. Youngstown, Ohio. August 31, 1992. The Vindicator. May 9, 2012. Google News. https://web.archive.org/web/20151119060522/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=IolKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nYYMAAAAIBAJ&pg=1553,8853585&dq=cutler+ridge+mall+hurricane+andrew&hl=en. November 19, 2015. live.
  67. News: Floridians mop up; Gulf Coast is next. 4A. Mark Silva. Charles Strouse. John Donnelly. August 25, 1992. Knight Ridder. June 1, 2012. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20140527215903/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/we0825p2.gif. May 27, 2014. live.
  68. News: Dade agriculture hit hard by hurricane. September 8, 1992. United Press International. May 24, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170804052845/http://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/09/08/Dade-agriculture-hit-hard-by-hurricane/4418715924800/. August 4, 2017. live.
  69. News: City by city, Broward takes inventory, gets to work. August 26, 1992. Miami Herald. 2BR. May 10, 2021. Newspapers.com.
  70. Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on wetlands in Southern Florida and Louisiana. Reston, Virginia. John Lovelace. Benjamin McPherson. June 24, 1998. United States Geological Survey. May 9, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043945/https://water.usgs.gov/nwsum/WSP2425/andrew.html. March 4, 2016. live.
  71. News: Keys are islands in every sense after Andrew. Dan Keating. Nancy Klingener. 1. August 27, 1992. The Miami Herald. December 6, 2011. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20140527214456/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/mh0827p1.gif. May 27, 2014. live.
  72. Hurricane Andrew fact sheet. 1992. 2. May 31, 2017. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Collier County, Florida. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20170811005912/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/collier2.gif. August 11, 2017. live.
  73. News: Hurricane Andrew 1992: The "Greatest Storms on Earth" – Part VI. July 30, 2010. Coastal Breeze News. Marco Island, Florida. May 31, 2017. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20101001080042/http://coastalbreezenews.com/2010/07/30/hurricane-andrew-1992/. October 1, 2010.
  74. Hurricane Andrew fact sheet. 1992. 1. May 31, 2017. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Collier County, Florida. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20170811005912/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/collier2.gif. August 11, 2017. live.
  75. September 15, 1992. Final Storm Report ... Hurricane Andrew ... corrected. 2. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Weather Service New Orleans, Louisiana. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. May 10, 2011. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20131004233558/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/new02.gif. October 4, 2013. live.
  76. Michael Koziara. September 10, 1992. Hurricane Andrew Damage Assessment. 1. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Weather Service New Orleans, Louisiana. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. November 18, 2011. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220918/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/newdam01.gif. March 4, 2016. live.
  77. 34. 8. Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena with late reports and corrections. Grant Goodge. Storm Data. August 1992. 31–35, 42, 69–72, 88–89, 93, 123, 146–147, and 161. 0039-1972. June 1, 2017. https://www.webcitation.org/6qsw4Tcdh?url=https://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/orders/IPS/IPS-98485609-C49C-478E-A760-01E01157FE61.pdf. June 1, 2017. dead.
  78. News: Louisiana hit hard by Hurricane Andrew. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. New Straits Times. Associated Press. August 27, 1992. March 18, 2012. Google News. https://web.archive.org/web/20151119060203/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A7FUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=YJADAAAAIBAJ&pg=3132,2790149&dq=hurricane+andrew&hl=en. November 19, 2015. live.
  79. News: State. Alan Sayre. Associated Press. August 25, 1992. A2. Alexandria, Louisiana. The Town Talk. May 8, 2012. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060720/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/ad0825p2.gif. March 4, 2016. live.
  80. Hurricane Andrew in '92 toppled platforms, damaged 241 offshore installations. October 7, 2002. NGI The Weekly Gas Market Report. Natural Gas Intelligence. June 11, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20181023120040/https://www.naturalgasintel.com/articles/8102-hurricane-andrew-in-92-toppled-platforms-damaged-241-offshore-installations. October 23, 2018. live.
  81. News: Andrew inflicts severe damage on oil and gas platforms. Harihar Krishnan. September 3, 1992. United Press International. June 11, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20180202081939/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/09/03/Andrew-inflicts-severe-damage-on-oil-and-gas-platforms/4823715492800/. February 2, 2018. live.
  82. Steve Rich. National Weather Service Jackson, Mississippi. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. September 3, 1992. Tropical Storm Andrew. 1. March 27, 2011. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20111121081403/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/jackson1.gif. November 21, 2011. live.
  83. National Weather Service Jackson, Mississippi. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. September 22, 2010. A look back at Hurricane Rita. March 27, 2011. March 4, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042533/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jan/?n=2005_09_24_25_hurr_rita_tor. dead.
  84. News: Steve Rich. National Weather Service Jackson, Mississippi. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. September 3, 1992. Tropical Storm Andrew. 3. May 23, 2017. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304133225/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/jackson2.gif. March 4, 2016. live.
  85. Steve Rich. National Weather Service Jackson, Mississippi. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. September 3, 1992. Tropical Storm Andrew. 2. March 27, 2011. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20111121083627/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/jackson2.gif. November 21, 2011. live.
  86. Web site: David Roth. Tropical cyclone rainfall for the Gulf Coast. Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Data. September 21, 2011. April 2, 2013. Weather Prediction Center. Camp Springs, Maryland. https://web.archive.org/web/20110721055926/http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/tropical/rain/tcgulfcoast.html. July 21, 2011. live.
  87. Faulkner. National Weather Service Mobile, Alabama. August 28, 1992. Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. Post Storm Report ... Hurricane Andrew. March 29, 2011. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20111121084714/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/pshmob.gif. November 21, 2011. live.
  88. Book: Bahamas and U.S.A. – Hurricane Andrew Aug 1992 UN DHA Information Reports 1–3. United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs. Report. New York City, New York. ReliefWeb. August 26, 1992. June 20, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120616134101/http://reliefweb.int/node/34555. June 16, 2012. live.
  89. Web site: Hurricane awareness. September 28, 2010. Government of the Bahamas. 2. June 2, 2017. Nassau, Bahamas. https://web.archive.org/web/20181023080156/https://www.bahamas.gov.bs/wps/wcm/connect/b5c3c82b-f3c4-4a32-9988-0b3436a574c5/Stamp+Brochure_Hurricane+Awareness.pdf?MOD=AJPERES. October 23, 2018. live.
  90. News: Chiles hints at future tax hike. Alan Judd. September 12, 1992. The New York Times. The Gainesville Sun. May 8, 2012. Google News. https://web.archive.org/web/20151119050658/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=cUFWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XeoDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5502,3697034&dq=lawton+chiles+hurricane&hl=en. November 19, 2015. live.
  91. News: Disaster aid bill goes to Bush. Sean Holton. September 19, 1992. Orlando Sentinel. January 17, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20150513000514/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1992-09-19/news/9209190402_1_hurricane-hugo-disaster-aid-florida. May 13, 2015. live.
  92. Web site: Bill Summary & Status 102nd Congress (1991–1992) H.R.5620. Library of Congress. January 17, 2013. Washington D.C.. September 23, 1992. https://web.archive.org/web/20121215202605/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HR05620:. December 15, 2012. live.
  93. News: Bush will stop in Homestead on Florida campaign swing. October 2, 1992. Associated Press. Tallahassee Democrat. 3B. Newspapers.com. August 15, 2022.
  94. News: FEMA lambasted once again for another relief effort failure. August 29, 1992. Associated Press. Santa Cruz Sentinel. 6. May 26, 2017. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810210543/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11260865/santa_cruz_sentinel/. August 10, 2017. live.
  95. News: Robert Pear . Hurricane Andrew; Breakdown Seen in U.S. Storm Aid. August 29, 1992. The New York Times. June 1, 2020.
  96. Florida Hurricane Andrew (DR-955). Federal Emergency Management Agency's Archive of Declared Disasters & Emergencies. October 18, 2004. Washington D.C.. Federal Emergency Management Agency. May 8, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20130630194218/http://www.fema.gov/disaster/955. June 30, 2013. live.
  97. News: Andrew picks up speed as it races across gulf. August 27, 1992. 3A. Detroit Free Press. May 8, 2012. GIF. https://web.archive.org/web/20151117171013/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/news/dn0827p2.gif. November 17, 2015. live.
  98. News: Chiles signs bill for Andrew relief. December 18, 1992. Associated Press. The Palm Beach Post. 12A. June 10, 2017. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170814221148/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11605493/the_palm_beach_post/. August 14, 2017. live.
  99. News: Storm's howl fills the ears of survivors. Craig Pittman. August 18, 2002. St. Petersburg Times. May 10, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20161204162542/http://www.sptimes.com/2002/webspecials02/andrew/day1/story1.shtml. December 4, 2016.
  100. News: Hurricane Andrew; down to the basics: hunting For food, water and shelter. August 26, 1992. The New York Times. Larry Rohter. May 26, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170811012353/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/26/us/hurricane-andrew-down-to-the-basics-hunting-for-food-water-and-shelter.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm. August 11, 2017. live.
  101. News: 10 years ago, her angry plea got hurricane aid moving. Bill Adair. August 20, 2002. St. Petersburg Times. May 8, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20111227221000/http://www.sptimes.com/2002/webspecials02/andrew/day3/story1.shtml. December 27, 2011. live.
  102. News: Jeffrey Ulbrich. 82nd Airborne savors 'helping our own'. September 8, 1992. Associated Press. Gainesville Sun. August 24, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150904111449/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1320&dat=19920908&id=bUFWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XeoDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6807,2622949&hl=en. September 4, 2015. live.
  103. News: Only 300 people go to tent cities. September 4, 1992. Associated Press. Eugene Register-Guard. May 10, 2012. Google News. https://web.archive.org/web/20151118144730/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=alJWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=_usDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5604,606036&dq=hurricane+andrew+tent+cities&hl=en. November 18, 2015. live.
  104. News: After Andrew hurricane victims fill tent cities. Fredericksburg, Virginia. Michael Fleeman. September 8, 1992. Associated Press. The Free Lance–Star. May 10, 2012. Google News. https://web.archive.org/web/20160512184431/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=YfpNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=dYsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6727,1213458&dq=hurricane+andrew&hl=en. May 12, 2016. live.
  105. News: Canada to send hurricane relief team. September 8, 1992. Reuters. Los Angeles Times. June 11, 2017.
  106. News: The 1992 campaign: Florida poll; Florida emerges as crucial state in the campaign. Larry Rohter. September 17, 1992. The New York Times. August 24, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150526054824/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/17/us/the-1992-campaign-florida-poll-florida-emerges-as-crucial-state-in-the-campaign.html. May 26, 2015. live.
  107. Web site: Election of 1992. John T. Woolley. Gerhard Peters. University of California, Santa Barbara. The American Presidency Project. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170519030648/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1992. May 19, 2017. dead.
  108. News: Poll: Rick Scott one of the nation's least popular governors. Marc Caputo. May 25, 2011. Tampa Bay Times. May 22, 2017. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20170905233809/http://www.tampabay.com/news/politics/national/poll-rick-scott-one-of-the-nations-least-popular-governors/1171680. September 5, 2017.
  109. Carol Z. Garrison. Elizabeth S. Bryant. Cheryl L. Addy. Pamela G. Spurrier. John R. Freedy. Dean G. Kilpatrick. September 1995. Posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents after Hurricane Andrew. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 34. 9. 1193–1201. 7559314. 10.1097/00004583-199509000-00017.
  110. Book: Hurricane Andrew, the public schools, and the rebuilding of community. registration. Hurricane Andrew, the Public Schools, and the Rebuilding of Community.. Eugene Provenzo Jr. . State University of New York Press. 56. Albany, New York. 1995. 978-1-4384-1652-6. April 3, 2013.
  111. News: Psychologists observe mixed signs in hurricane survivors. September 25, 1992. United Press International. June 3, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170803171607/http://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/09/25/Psychologists-observe-mixed-signs-in-hurricane-survivors/4668717393600/. August 3, 2017. live.
  112. Journal of Forensic Sciences. May 1996. 8656186. Emma O. Lew. Charles V. Wetli. Mortality from Hurricane Andrew. 669243194. 41. 3. 449–452. 10.1520/JFS13933J .
  113. News: Homestead high on list for closing. March 7, 1993. The New York Times. The Palm Beach Post. 1. June 2, 2017. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810210540/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11418121/the_palm_beach_post/. August 10, 2017. live.
  114. Web site: History of Homestead Air Reserve Base. July 22, 2015. Homestead Air Reserve Base. United States Air Force. June 2, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810210737/http://www.homestead.afrc.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/700486/history-of-homestead-air-reserve-base/. August 10, 2017. live.
  115. News: New Orleans 'counting on' Lord, levees. August 25, 1992. Associated Press. Standard-Speaker. 2. June 2, 2017. Hazleton, Pennsylvania. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810210703/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11427044/standardspeaker/. August 10, 2017. live.
  116. News: Reserve unit breathes new life into Homestead air base. March 26, 1994. Associated Press. The Palm Beach Post. 6A. June 2, 2017. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170811005637/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11426953/the_palm_beach_post/. August 11, 2017. live.
  117. News: Another strike For Homestead city officials blast Indians as Spring training deal ends. Luisa Yanez. April 17, 1993. Sun-Sentinel. Deerfield Beach, Florida. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810211204/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1993-04-17/sports/9302060500_1_muxo-homestead-officials-greater-homestead. August 10, 2017. live.
  118. News: Post-Andrew housing aid from FEMA ready to end. Maya Bell. February 16, 1995. Orlando Sentinel. Sun-Sentinel. June 2, 2017. Deerfield Beach, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810211432/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1995-02-16/news/9502160086_1_fema-travel-trailers-mobile-home. August 10, 2017. live.
  119. News: Homes And lives rebuilt. Marjorie Lambert. Seth Borenstein. John Maines. August 21, 1994. Sun-Sentinel. June 2, 2017. Deerfield Beach, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810211618/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1994-08-21/news/9408200376_1_hurricane-recovery-dade-county-cutler-ridge. August 10, 2017. live.
  120. News: Ten years after Hurricane Andrew, effects are still felt. Deerfield Beach, Florida. Adrian Sainz. August 24, 2002. Associated Press. Sun-Sentinel. May 8, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121014215256/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/sfl-1992-ap-mainstory%2C0%2C7290462.story. 1. October 14, 2012. dead.
  121. Hurricane Andrew Damage Assessment. 3. September 10, 1992. National Weather Service New Orleans/Baton Rouge, Louisiana. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042416/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1992/andrew/preloc/newdam03.gif. March 4, 2016. live.
  122. Web site: History of the Florida Building Association. 2004. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. June 4, 2017. Tallahassee, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20180222130513/http://www.floridabuilding.org/fbc/information/building_commission.htm. February 22, 2018. live.
  123. Top ten Florida residential building code violations. Robert Cox. R. Raymond Issa. Jessica Ligator. June 2006. University of Florida. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. vi. March 31, 2013. Gainesville, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20120413035333/http://www.floridabuilding.org/fbc/publications/CodeViolationsFinalReport4.pdf. April 13, 2012. live.
  124. News: Strong building codes work only if they are enforced. Dominic Sims. August 21, 2012. Sun-Sentinel. March 31, 2013. Deerfield Beach, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20130703151539/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2012-08-21/news/fl-codes-oped0822-20120821_1_code-officials-codes-work-codes-and-standards. July 3, 2013. live.
  125. Book: https://books.google.com/books?id=1aOc5qmj59YC&pg=PA13. Lessons learned between hurricanes: from Hugo to Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne. Disaster Recovery. Patricia Jones Kershaw. Byron Mason. 2005. 13. National Academies Press. Washington, D.C.. 978-0-309-65667-2.
  126. https://www.nap.edu/read/10144/chapter/19#261. Growing populations, changing landscapes: studies from India, China, and the United States. William D. Solecki. Robert T. Walker. National Academies Press. 2016. Transformation of the South Florida Landscape. 261. May 22, 2017. Washington, D.C.. https://web.archive.org/web/20190410112422/https://www.nap.edu/read/10144/chapter/19#261. April 10, 2019. live.
  127. Book: The Jewish Traveler: Hadassah Magazine's guide to the world's Jewish communities and sights. Alan M. Tigay. https://books.google.com/books?id=v3Pf4qand_8C&pg=PA303. 303. 1994. Rowman & Littlefield. Miami to Palm Beach. May 22, 2017. 978-1-56821-078-0.
  128. News: Andrew sent many to Broward. Sun-Sentinel. John Maines. June 5, 1995. May 22, 2017. Deerfield Beach, Florida. https://web.archive.org/web/20170827223000/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1995-06-05/news/9506050101_1_dade-s-population-dade-county-irs-report. August 27, 2017. live.
  129. News: Tragedy brought opportunity for some. 6. August 24, 2002. Joel Englehardt. The Palm Beach Post. Newspapers.com. May 23, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810210833/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11189969/the_palm_beach_post/. August 10, 2017. live.
  130. News: Immigrants rebuild a city that others fled. The New York Times. February 21, 2000. Peter T. Kilborn. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170810211909/http://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/21/us/immigrants-rebuild-a-city-that-others-fled.html. August 10, 2017. live.
  131. Web site: Nonnatives – Burmese Python. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170525002435/http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/nonnatives/reptiles/burmese-python. May 25, 2017. live.
  132. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267333710. Rebecca G. Harvey. Matthew L. Brien. Michael S. Cherkiss. Michael Dorcas. Mike Rochford. Ray W. Snow. Frank J. Mazzotti. 2007. Introduced populations of Boa constrictor (Boidae) and Python molurus bivittatus (Pythonidae) in southern Florida. 416–438. Biology of the Boas and Pythons. Eagle Mountain, Utah. Eagle Mountain Press. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170804113041/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267333710_Introduced_populations_of_Boa_constrictor_Boidae_and_Python_molurus_bivittatus_Pythonidae_in_southern_Florida. August 4, 2017. live.
  133. Salazar announces ban on importation and interstate transportation of four giant snakes that threaten Everglades. January 17, 2012. United States Department of the Interior. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170821105938/https://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/Salazar-Announces-Ban-on-Importation-and-Interstate-Transportation-of-Four-Giant-Snakes-that-Threaten-Everglades. August 21, 2017. live.
  134. 2009 South Florida Environmental Report. Amy Ferriter. Dan Thayer. Mike Bodle. Bob Doren. 2009. Chapter 9: The status of nonindigenous species in the South Florida environment. 1. https://my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page/portal/pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/portlet_sfer/tab2236041/2009report/report/v1/chapters/v1_ch9.pdf. 3. South Florida Water Management District. May 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170131191527/http://my.sfwmd.gov/portal/page/portal/pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/portlet_sfer/tab2236041/2009report/report/v1/chapters/v1_ch9.pdf. January 31, 2017. live.
  135. News: Photos: on this day – August 24, 1992 – Hurricane Andrew demolishes South Florida. https://archive.today/20130216124629/http://photos.newhavenregister.com/2012/08/24/photos-on-this-day-august-24-1992-hurricane-andrew-demolishes-south-florida/. dead. February 16, 2013. August 24, 2012. New Haven Register. February 3, 2013.
  136. News: Hurricane Andrew; hurricane rips Louisiana coast before dying out. Peter Applebome. August 27, 1992. The New York Times. May 8, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20140123054209/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/27/us/hurricane-andrew-hurricane-rips-louisiana-coast-before-dying-out.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm. January 23, 2014. live.
  137. Louisiana Hurricane Andrew (DR-956). Washington D.C.. October 18, 2004. Federal Emergency Management Agency's Archive of Declared Disasters & Emergencies. Federal Emergency Management Agency. January 17, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20130304162210/http://www.fema.gov/disasters/grid/year/1992?field_disaster_type_term_tid_1=All. March 4, 2013. live.
  138. News: Louisiana storm survivors give thanks during cleanup. August 30, 1992. The Gettysburg Times. Associated Press. Mary Foster. 5. Newspapers.com. May 26, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170905100257/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11259912/the_gettysburg_times/. September 5, 2017. live.
  139. News: Water and food flow into Louisiana. August 29, 1992. Associated Press. The Salina Journal. 9. May 26, 2017. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170905094017/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11259872/the_salina_journal/. September 5, 2017. live.
  140. News: Rain plagues storm victims. Associated Press. September 4, 1992. Telegraph Herald. 13. February 3, 2013. Dubuque, Iowa. Google News. https://web.archive.org/web/20151118214210/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qhdRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=v9AMAAAAIBAJ&pg=5648,679201&dq=hurricane+andrew+louisiana+small+business+administration&hl=en. November 18, 2015. live.
  141. News: Louisiana rebuilding is hit and miss after Andrew. December 27, 1992. 12. Associated Press. The Daily News. May 26, 2017. Galveston, Texas. Newspapers.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20170905093126/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11260284/the_galveston_daily_news/. September 5, 2017. live.
  142. Tropical cyclone naming history and retired names. National Hurricane Center. April 13, 2012. Miami, Florida. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service. June 22, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120627193026/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames_history.shtml#greek. June 27, 2012. live.
  143. Web site: World-wide Tropical Cyclone Names. https://web.archive.org/web/19971210185319/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/names.html. December 10, 1997. Maher. Brian. Beven. Jack. August 10, 1997. National Hurricane Center. November 17, 2011.
  144. Web site: 1992– Hurricane Andrew. Hurricanes: Science and Society. University of Rhode Island. Kingston, Rhode Island. April 7, 2024.