List of glossing abbreviations explained

This article lists common abbreviations for grammatical terms that are used in linguistic interlinear glossing of oral languages in English.

The list provides conventional glosses as established by standard inventories of glossing abbreviations such as the Leipzig Glossing rules, the most widely known standard. Synonymous glosses are listed as alternatives for reference purposes. In a few cases, long and short standard forms are listed, intended for texts where that gloss is rare or uncommon.

Conventions

• Grammatical abbreviations are generally written in full or small caps to visually distinguish them from the translations of lexical words. For instance, capital or small-cap (frequently abbreviated to) glosses a grammatical past-tense morpheme, while lower-case 'past' would be a literal translation of a word with that meaning. Similarly, (small) cap might be a locative suffix used in nominal inflections, prototypically indicating direction downward but possibly also used where it is not translatable as 'down' in English, whereas lower-case 'down' would be a direct English translation of a word meaning 'down'.^[1] Not all authors follow this convention.
• Person-number-gender is often further abbreviated, in which case the elements are not small caps. E.g. 3ms or 3msg for, 2fp or 2fpl for, also 1di for and 1pe for .
• Authors may more severely abbreviate glosses than is the norm, if they are particularly frequent within a text, e.g. rather than for 'immediate past'. This helps keep the gloss graphically aligned with the parsed text when the abbreviations are longer than the morphemes they gloss. Such shortened forms may be ambiguous with other authors or texts are so are not presented as normative here. Glosses may also be less abbreviated than the norm if they are not common in a particular text, so as to not tax the reader, e.g. for 'transitivizer' or for 'subjunctive'. At the extreme, glosses may not be abbreviated at all but simply written in small caps, e.g., or rather than,, .^[2] Such long, obvious abbreviations^{e.g. in} have been omitted from the list below, but are always possible.
• A morpheme will sometimes be used as its own gloss. This is typically done when it is the topic of discussion, and the author wishes it to be immediately recognized in the gloss among other morphemes with similar meanings, or when it has multiple or subtle meanings that would be impractical to gloss with a single conventional abbreviation. For example, if a passage has two contrasting nominalizing suffixes under discussion, ɣiŋ and jolqəl, they may be glossed and, with the glosses explained in the text. This is also seen when the meaning of a morpheme is debated, and glossing it one way or another would prejudice the discussion.
• Lexical morphemes are typically translated, using lower-case letters, though they may be given a grammatical gloss in small caps if they play a grammatical role in the text. Exceptions include proper nouns, which typically are not translated, and kinship terms, which may be too complex to translate. Proper nouns/names may simply be repeated in the gloss, or may be replaced with a placeholder such as "(name.)" or "" (for a female name). For kinship glosses, see the dedicated section below for a list of standard abbreviations.
• Lehmann recommends that abbreviations for syntactic roles not be used as glosses for arguments, as they are not morphological categories. Glosses for case should be used instead, e.g. or for A. Morphosyntactic abbreviations are typically typeset as full capitals even when small caps are used for glosses,^[3] and include A (agent of transitive verb), B (core benefactive),^[4] D or I (core dative / indirect object), E (experiencer of sensory verb), G or R (goal or recipient  - indirect object of ditransitive verb), L (location argument), O or P (patient of transitive verb), S (single argument of intransitive verb), S_A (Sa) and S_P or S_O (Sp, So) (agent- and patient-like argument in split-S alignment), Se and Sx (argument of equative/copular and existential verb),^[5] Su (subject of v.t. or v.i.),^[5] and T (theme  - direct object of ditransitive verb).

These abbreviations are, however, commonly used as the basis for glosses for symmetrical voice systems (formerly called 'trigger' agreement, and by some still 'focus' (misleadingly, as it is not grammatical focus), such as (agent voice), (beneficiary 'focus'), (locative 'trigger').

• Glosses for generic concepts like 'particle', 'infix', 'tense', 'object marker' and the like are generally to be avoided in favor of specifying the precise value of the morpheme. However, they may be appropriate for historical linguistics or language comparison, where the value differs between languages or a meaning cannot be reconstructed, or where such usage is unambiguous because there is only a single morpheme (e.g. article or aspect marker) that can be glossed that way. When a more precise gloss would be misleading (for example, an aspectual marker that has multiple uses, or which is not sufficiently understood to gloss properly), but glossing it as its syntactic category would be ambiguous, the author may disambiguate with digits (e.g. and for a pair of aspect markers). Such pseudo-glossing may be difficult for the reader to follow.
• Authors also use placeholders for generic elements in schematicized parsing, such as may be used to illustrate morpheme or word order in a language. Examples include or 'head'; or 'root'; or 'stem';, or 'prefix';, or 'suffix';, or '(en)clitic'; 'preposition' and or 'postposition', 'person - number - gender element' and 'tense - aspect - mood element' (also number - gender, person - number, tense - aspect, tense - aspect - mood - evidential) etc. These are not listed below as they are not glosses for morphological values.

Lists

Nonabbreviated English words used as glosses are not included in the list below. Caution is needed with short glosses like,, and, which could potentially be either abbreviations or (as in these cases) nonabbreviated English prepositions used as glosses.

Transparent compounds of the glosses below, such as or 'remote past', a compound of 'remote' and 'past', are not listed separately.

Abbreviations beginning with (generalized glossing prefix for non-, in-, un-) are not listed separately unless they have alternative forms that are included. For example, is not listed, as it is composable from + . This convention is grounded in the Leipzig Glossing Rules. Some authors use a lower-case n, for example for 'non-human'.^[6]

Some sources are moving from classical lative terminology to 'directional', with concommitant changes in the abbreviations. Other authors contrast -lative and -directive.

Some sources use alternative abbreviations to distinguish e.g. nominalizer from nominalization, or shorter abbreviations for compounded glosses in synthetic morphemes than for independent glosses in agglutinative morphemes. These are seldom distinct morphosyntactic categories in a language, though some may be distinguished in historical linguistics. They are not distinguished below, as any such usage tends to be idiosyncratic to the author.

Punctuation and numbers

! Conventional Gloss! Variants ! Meaning! Reference

-		separator for segmentable morphemes, e.g., Lezgian amuq’-da-č (stay--) "will not stay"
=	꞊, ‿	[optional in place of hyphen] separator for clitics, e.g., West Greenlandic palasi=lu niuirtur=lu (priest=and shopkeeper=and) "both the priest and the shopkeeper"
.		when a morph is rendered by more than one gloss, the glosses are separated by periods, e.g., French French: aux chevaux (to. horse.) "to the horses" A period is not used between person and number, e.g.,,, (nonsingular).
_		[optional in place of period] when the language of the gloss lacks a one-word translation, a phrase may be joined by underscores, e.g., Turkish çık-mak (come_out-) "to come out" With some authors, the reverse is also true, for a two-word phrase glossed with a single word.
›	>, →, :	[optional in place of period] direction of polypersonal agreement in a single gloss, whether (a) possession (means 1 possessor and singular possessum) or (b) transitivity (2›3 means 2 acts on 3, as in guny-bi-yarluga (-poke) "(who) do you two want to spear?" A colon is used by some authors:, -poke.	^[7]
		[optional in place of period] separates glosses where segmentation is irrelevant (morphemes may be segmentable, but author does not wish to separate them)
		[optional in place of period] separates glosses that are combined in a portmanteau morpheme, as in aux chevaux (to; horse;) "to the horses". Some authors use the colon indiscriminately for this convention and the previous.
+		[optional] compound word or fused morpheme. (Also used in 1+2 (inclusive) vs 1+3 (exclusive) person; strong emphatic)
&		[optional in place of period] cross-referencing: X&Y = X›Y or Y›X or both
/		alternative meanings of ambiguous morpheme, e.g. 2/3 for a morpheme that may be either 2nd or 3rd person, or for a suffix used for both dative and genitive.
\		[optional in place of period] a morpheme indicated by or affected by mutation, as in Väter-n (father\) "to (our) fathers" (singular form Vater)
[...]		[optional in place of period] indicates unmarked element (such as fils (son, which has no suffix for). The null suffix -∅ may be used instead.
(...)		[optional in place of period] inherent category, such as covert gender (when glossed at all)
~		[required in place of hyphen] marks reduplication and retriplication (e.g. Ancient Greek gé~graph-a ~write- 'I have written', with word-initial reduplication)
	<...>	[required in place of hyphen] marks off an infix (e.g. Vb is word-initial infixation that makes the verb iterative)
⟩...⟨	-...-, >...<	[optional in place of hyphens] marks off a circumfix or bipartite stem. The second element may be glossed the same as the first, or as, or $: ge⟩lauf⟨en   run ge⟩lauf⟨en   ⟩run⟨ ge⟩lauf⟨en   ⟩run⟨ ge-lauf-en   -run- ge-lauf-en   -run-
$		(second part of a discontinuous lexeme)
√		[optional] used by some authors to mark which element is the root (in (x-√y-z), 'y' is the root)	^[8]
?	??,	(morpheme not understood, unidentified morpheme)
∅	0, Ø	zero (null) morpheme (such as fils-∅ (son-), with a 'zero' suffix for). Brackets may be used instead.	^[9]
	0	zeroth person ('one', as in Finnish, Keres)
	0	epenthetic segment (semantically null)
1		first person (1msg, 1fpl,, etc.): speaker-honorific, speaker-humiliative/humble	^[10]
2		second person
3		third person (or 3msg or 3ms; or 3fpl or 3fp; or 3ndu or 3nd; or n3 non-3rd person) [occasionally 3sm, 3sn, 3sf, 3pm, 3pn, 3pf etc.]
	12, 13	inclusive, exclusive person (especially if not thought of as a form of 1pl) (rarely other digit compounds, e.g. 12 dual vs 122 plural inclusive, 33 vs 333 for 3du vs 3pl, etc.)
	3sp	impersonal 'space' subject	^[11]
		(3rd-person subj, 3rd-person obj conjunct - order verb)	^[12]
	4	(a) fourth person (=) (b) first person inclusive (c) indefinite person	^[13]
etc.		noun classes / genders	^[14] ^[15]
> ≥ < ≤		older and younger: 'I' (speaker older than addressee), 'you' (speaker addressing addressee of same age or younger), 's/he' (referent older than (a) speaker or (b) addressee, depending on requirements of discourse)
= ≠		same and different generations: 'they two' (of different generations, e.g. grandchild and great-grandchild), = 'we' (of same generation, e.g. me and my siblings)
≈		varies with

Grammatical abbreviations

! Conventional Gloss! Variants! Meaning! Reference

		athematic (athematic tense-aspect-mood, athematic antecedent, etc.)
		associating (prefix on case abbreviation)
		addressee authority (cf.)
		from. May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as, or, etc. if not.
	,	above deictic center	^[16]
	,	abessive case (caritive case or privative case: 'without')Lehmann (2004) recommends using privative or aversive instead^[17]	^[18] ^[19]
	,	(cap)ability (acquired ability, intrinsic ability)
		ablative case ('from')
		ablative-modalis case	^[20]
	,	absolutive case	^[21]
		absolute (free, non-incorporated form of noun)
	cn	abstractive abstract
		abstract (of nominal)
		absentive (occurring in a place displaced from the deictic centre)	^[22] ^[23]
		about
		motion across (as opposed to up/down-hill, -river)
		animacy classifier
		accusative case
		accompanier	^[24]
		achievement
	,	accomplishment	^[25]
	, cn?	actor role
		active voice
		action (verbal participle)
		actual
		actualizing
		activity
		near, by. May be equivalent to or . Compounded for, (irregular), etc. if a single morpheme, as,, etc. if not.
		agent demotion
		anti-deictic
		adaptive
		additive case; additive focus
	,,	adessive case ('at'; more specific than). See .
		adelative	^[26]
		adjective (adjectivizer)
		adjunct
		adjectivizer
		admonitive mood (warning)
	,	addressive addressee-anchored/orientated/perspective	^[27]
		adverb(ial) (~ adverbializer); adverbial case	^[28] ^[29]
		advancement
		adverb marker
	,,	adversative (maleficiary, 'whereas')
	,	adverbializer
	,,	aequalis (equalis) case (like, as), equational particle, equative (adj in nominal clause; = active, stative equative)
	,	affirmative
		affectionate
		aforementioned
		affective case	^[30]
	a	argument-focus marker
		away from water (=)	^[31]
		aggregate, collective (cf.)
	,,	agent nominalization/noun
	,	agreement affix (typically number - gender; cf.) Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding and specifying agreement categories.
		agentive case (agentive nominalizer)
		adjacent
	cn?	alienable possession
	,	allative case ('to'; also 'aditive', 'adlative', 'addirective')
		allocutive (addressee honorific)
		alterphoric, =	^[32]
		ambiphoric pronoun
		amplifier
	,	animate gender (animate plural; cf ; may exclude human referents)
	,,	action noun, action nominalizer
	,	adnominalizer
	,	anaphoric (demonstrative, suffix)
		action narrowly averted
		andative ('going towards', cf venitive)
		adnominal verb
		anterior tense (relative tense; used for in some traditions)
		Antecedent (athematic antecedent, thematic antecedent)
	,	anticipated (future), anticipating
		in front of. May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as,, etc. if not.
		anteelative (antelative)
		antessive case, anteessive ('before')
,		anticausative	^[33]
		anticipatory (anticipatory subject)
,	,,,	antipassive voice	^[34]
		antelative (ante-lative), antedirective
		agent-orientated verb
		attributive oblique	^[35]
		aorist (=)
		adverbial particle [note: better to gloss the actual meaning]
		adjective prefix
	,,	applicative (subtypes etc.)	^[36]
		apposition, appositional mood	^[37]
		approbation
		apprehensive mood, apprehensional ('lest')
	,,	active participle, present participle
		approximative
		near, in the vicinity of. May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as,, etc. if not.
	,	areal (place/time/situation)
		argumentative	^[38]
		article
		aseverative
		actor (agent-role subject)
	,,	(a) associative case ('with', 'à'; not =), (b) associative plural (also), (c) associative mood (d) compounds, e.g. associated motion	^[39]
		aspect, aspectual Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding 'aspect' as a gloss and specifying the aspect.
	,,	assertive mood
		asserted past participle
	, cn?	assumptive mood, assumed evidential
		assistive
		asymmetric (=)
		at (locative) [English preposition as a gloss]
		attention-calling
	,	attributive (attributive derived from place name), attributor
	,	attenuative
		auditory evidential, auditive
		(a) augmentative; (b) augment (in Bantu noun classes) (c) augmented number (e.g. of imperative)
		auxiliary verb Per Lehmann (2004), this should only be used if it uniquely identifies the morpheme (i.e., there is only one auxiliary morpheme in the language.)
	,,	agent/actor voice/focus/trigger (non-actor voice)	^[40] ^[41] ^[42]
		avertive
		aversative, aversive
	,	'be' verb (a conflation of and) [cf. {{sc|cop}}]
		below deictic center
		benefactive case ('for')
		background	^[43]
		bivalent
		bottom (presumably also '')
	,	boundary (a. boundary-emphasizing; b. geographic boundary)	^[44]
		bound root
		boundary tone
		beneficiary voice/focus/trigger
		common gender (or cs common singular, or cp common plural)
		current evidence
		conceptualizer	^[45]
		'compass', in languages where relative position is based on cardinal direction rather than left, right, front and behind (compass ablative, compass allative)	^[46]
		complementizing (prefix on case abbreviation)
		ceased existence
		caritive case	^[47]
		cardinal numeral (morpheme or grammatical feature)
	,	causal-final case; causal
	,,	causative	^[48]
		(a) conditional converb, (b) clause-chain marker
		core development
		conjunct dubitive neutral
		conjunct dubitive preterite
		continued event
		celerative	^[49]
		centric case
		centrifugal (motion)	^[50]
		centripetal (motion)
		certainty (evidential)
		cessative
		contrastive focus
		at X's place, at the home of (from the French preposition chez)
		chômeur
		cohortative (often =)
		contrary information flow
	,	(a) circumstantive ('in', 'by') (b) circumstantial voice (=)
	, $	(empty tag to mark second element of a circumfix)
		circumferential
		circumessive
	,	cislocative	^[51]
		citation form ending	^[52]
		conjoint
		close link (necessary condition; temporal closeness)
		nominal class (in Bantu languages)	^[53]
		clause-level, e.g. clause-level 'and', completive clause marking
	,,	classifier (base or morpheme) (noun class). Some distinguish classifier from class marker. The category of classifier should be specified, e.g. ":round" or ""
		(a) conjugation marker; (b) noun-class marker; (c) concatenative marker
		compound
	,,,,,	completive (completitive) aspect (e.g. completed past)  - normally =
	,,,	comparative
	,	commitment, committal
		common noun (e.g. common-noun determiner)
		conjunct nominal
	,,	connegative
	,	conjunction
	,,	construct state/form
	,,	consequential (e.g. consequential mood)	^[54]
	,,,	counterfactual conditional, contrafactuality
	,,,	contrastive, contranstive focus (=), contrasted topic
		continuer
		counter-assertive
		counterexpectation	^[55]
		co-agency
		concomitative-causitive
		coherence
		collective number/numeral
	,	comitative case ('together with', 'in the company of')
	,,	complementizer (=)
		compassion
	,	comparative case (unequal comparison)
		compulsional
	,	conative
		concrete
	,	concessive ('although') (> concessive particle)
		concurrent
		concord marker [to be avoided in favor of specifying the agreement]
	,	conditional mood ('if', 'would') (given conditional, given concessive conditional)
	,	confirmational, confirmative
	,	congruent
		conjunctive (interpropositional relation), conjunct person marking
		conjectural (evidential) (negative conjectural)
	,,	connective (particle, mood, case)
	,	connector
		consecutive concessive
	,	consecutive mood ('so that')
	,,	constant, constancy
	,,	continuous aspect, continuative aspect
		on a vertical surface. (From English contact.) May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as, or, etc. if not.
		continuous direction
		contentive
		cooperative
		coordination, coordinative
		copula, copulative (identity copula, locative-existential copula)
	,	coreference, coreferential	^[56]
		conjunctive participle
		content question (=)
		crastinal tense ('tomorrow')
	,	cardinal pronoun
		current relevance marker, currently relevant state (as in the perfect)	^[57]
		change of state marker
		cosubordinator	^[58]
		circumstantial topic
		contraexpectative
		contingent mood
		contiguous	^[59]
	,,,	contemporative (at that/the same time)
		control
	,,	customary (cf.
	,	circumstantial/theme voice/focus/trigger
		copula verbalizer
		characteristic vowel
		conveyance voice (cf. circumstantial voice)	^[60]
	,,	converb
		dative case
		dectic center
		downcoast
		discourse definite
		different event, change of event (cf)	^[61]
		discontinued event
-de		dual exclusive (=)	^[62]
		deagentive
	,,	debitive / obligative mood
		decausative
	,	declarative mood
		deductive evidential
		definite
		definitive
		defocus
		deferential (speaker-humble)
	cn?,,,,	deixis, deictic (deictic of 12 person)
		delayed imperative (a command for later; cf.)	^[63]
		delative case ('off of', 'down from')
	,	delimiter, delimitative ('just, only'), delimiting
		deliberative mood
		demonstrative (proximate dem, present/given dem, remote dem; near addressee, lower than reference point, ~ near, near speaker, higher than reference point)
		denizen
		denominal
		deontic mood	^[64]
		deobjective
		dependent (as in), dependent clause marking (use)
		deportmentive
		depreciatory, deprecative
		derivation, derivational morpheme (e.g. adjective-derived)
		derelational
	cn?,	desiderative mood (=) (desiderative noun)
		destinative aspect or case ('to') (non-finite verb form = supine)
		determiner
		detransitivizer, detransitive
		detrimental
		default	^[65]
		downhill, seaward (cf)
-di		dual inclusive (=)
		direct information flow
		diminutive
	,,,	direct evidential (= ; direct/inferred)
		directive, directional (=); typically suffixed to another element such as .
	,	(a) direct case (> indirect case), (b) direct voice (opposite of)
		directed (athematic directed, thematic directed)
		dislocative
	,,	discourse marker	^[66] ^[67]
		discursive connector
	,	disjunction, disjunctive, disjunct person marking	^[68]
		dissatisfaction
	,,,,	distal, distant (; distal imperative)
	,,	(a) distributive case; (b) distributive plural (c) distributive aspect
		ditransitive
		diversative
		deverbal noun
		denizen
		a) demonstrative marker; directive marker (polite command)
DO	,	direct object(ive)
		do like a ... (verbalizing suffix)
		(a) differential object marking; (b) direct-object marker
		donative (auxiliary of benefactive)
		doxastic
		distant past. =
		discourse particle [use actual gloss if possible]
		destinative participle
		direct past (evidentiality)
		distant past continuative
		distant past completive
		downriver (cf toward the water)	^[69]
		different reference
		different-subject/actor/agent (change of subject) marker (cf)	^[70]
	,	discontinuative aspect
		different taxis
		detrimentary
	, d	dual number (or md masculine dual, or fd feminine dual)
	,	dubitative mood, dubiative
		dummy affix
	,	duplicative
		durative aspect (continuous aspect)
		direction voice/focus/trigger	^[71]
	,	downward
	cn?	dyadic (e.g. wife- 'man and wife')	^[72] ^[73]
		dynamic aspect / eventive
		(used to form various essive cases)
		epistemic authority (=)
		euphonic consonant (=)
		effector
		extra-focal
		egophoric (non-egophoric)
		egressive
		euphonic insertion
	,,	elative case ('out of')
		existential + locative + possessive + attributive
		a) extension marker; b) evaluative marker
		emotive
	,,	(a) emphatic (e.g. emphatic base of pronouns), (b) emphasizer, emphatic marker (emphatic topic)
	,,	clause-final particle (joshi) Per Lehmann (2004), glosses as 'particle' should be avoided; instead translate/gloss the meaning.	^[74]
		endopathic (=)
			, Marcus . Nicole Elise . 2010 . The Gascon Énonciatif System: Past, Present, and Future: A study of language contact, change, endangerment, and maintenance . PhD . 12 February 2023.
	,,, 0	epenthetic morpheme, epenthetical
	,,,,	epistemic mood or modality	^[75]
		epithet	^[76]
		equative (=
		ergative case
		echo subject
		essive case ('as')
	,,	evidential (etc.) [per Lehmann (2004), the particular evidential should be specified] (previous-evidence evidential)
		euphonic vowel (=)
		experiencer voice
		evitative case (= aversive case)
		eventual
		exaltive/deferential (high-status register)
	,	excessive [cf. {{sc|exess}} 'ex-essive', which is commonly misspelled 'excessive']
,	, e	exclusive person (as in,, 1e)	^[77]
	,,	exclamative, exclamatory
		excessive duration	^[78]
		executive (auxiliary)
		exessive case	^[79]
		extrafocal (cleft subordinate clause
		exhortative, adhortative	^[80]
		exhaustive focus
	,,,,	existential ('there is')
		exocentric case
	, cn?	experiencer, experiencer case
	,	experiential, eyewitness = direct evidential (cf.). experienced past.
		expectational
	,	expletive (dummy / meaningless form)
		expressive
		extended (aspect, demonstrative), extendible; extension (sound stretch)	^[81]
		extent
		external evidential
		extraversive (trz by addition of ugr)
		extended topic
	,,	ezafe = izafet
		feminine gender (or fs feminine singular,, or fp feminine plural) (also 'female speaker')
		future actor
		(a) factive evidential/mood, factual; (b) factitive (A- NP 'make NP A')
		familiar, as for familiar register (as the T–V distinction) and familiar pronominal
		future conjunct (non-future conjunct)
		facilitive
		future disjunct
	,	firsthand (non-firsthand)
		feminine indefinite
	,	morphological filler, sentence filler (expletive)
		finite verb (non-finite)
		finalis
		former, deceased, 'late'	^[82]
		first (= given) name
		phrase-final suffix
		focus (confusingly used both for symmetrical voice and for true grammatical focus:, agent/actor focus;, patient focus; location focus, beneficiary focus, accompanier focus, instrument focus, conveyance focus)	^[83]
	,,	(a) formal register (as the T–V distinction); (b) formal mood; (c) formal case ('in the capacity of...')
		future participle
	,	far past
		fraction, fractional (numeral)
	, cn?	frequentative aspect
		front
	,,,	frustrative	^[84]
		false start
		factative tense (if stative, if not)
		functional
		functive case
	,	future tense (future objective)
	,	future intention, intentional future
	,	final/terminal vowel
,,, etc.	etc.	gender / noun class (e.g. G4 = 4th gender; may be used alongside etc.)
		generalized evaluative marker
	,	genitive case, genitive form of pronoun
		generalized
		gerund, gerundive (for the latter, use obligative)
		given	^[85]
		general knowledge (evidential)
		gender marker [or specify the gender]
		general non-finite
		gnomic (generic) aspect	^[86]
	,,,,	generic, general (e.g. classifier, tense; general applicative)
		general tense
	,,	associated motion. (go to a place and perform the verb) (=)
		general past
		group numeral
	g	given topic
	,	goal voice/focus/trigger [how d this diff from PV?]
		Head
		hearer/reader
		high variety/code, in adiglossic situation
		human, anthropic gender (or hs human singular, or hp human plural, human allative) (cf.)
		higher animacy, higher object (cf.)
		habitual aspect
		habilitive
		hypocoristic
		hesitation, hesitation particle
		hesternal tense ('yesterday')
		historic(al), as in historical present or past historic tense
		number of hundreds (in a numeral)
		hodiernal tense ('today' in / hodernial future, / hodernial past)
	,, ^[suffix]	honorific (subject honorific)
		horizon of interest
		horizontal
	[cn]	hortative (1st-person imperative)
		human plural
		heard evidential (=)
	,,,	hearsay/reported evidential
	, cn?	humiliative, humble (low-status register)	^[87]
	, cn?	hypothetical mood
		inflected (inflected auxiliary)
		involuntary agent
	IA	indirect agent(ive)
		instrumental advancement
		iamitive
		involuntary causative (natural or accidental events)
		indirective copula
		involuntary comitative
	,	imperfective converb
	,	identity, identical (~),
		identificational
		identifiable	^[88]
	,	ideophone (≈)
		informal ending
		indefinite future
		ignorative
	,	illative case ('into')	^[89]
		interrogative marker
		impersonal infinitive
	,,	immediate, as in immediate imperative mood, near future tense, immediate past; immediate evidential
		immediate past, =
		imminent (future) =
	,,	imperative mood
		imparfait
	,,,	imperfect (=)
		implicated
		modal impossibility
	cn?	imprecative mood	^[90] ^[91]
	,, cn?,,	impersonal, impersonal verb	^[92] ^[93]
		in a container. May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as,, etc. if not.
	,	impotential
		inablative
		inactive
		inalienable possession
		inanimate gender
		increment
	,,,	inceptive (= inchoative or ingressive)	^[94]
	,,	inchoative
,		inclusive person (as or)
	,	incipient (athematic incipient, thematic incipient)
		indicative mood
		indirect causative
	,,	independent
		indeterminate
		indefinite human ('somebody')	^[95]
		indirective (motion inward); indirect(?) (indirective copula); indirect evidential
		individualizer
		indefinite non-human ('something')
		inelative case ('from within')	^[96]
	,,,	inessive case ('in')	^[97]
		infinitive
		inflectional
	,,	inferential mood, inferred evidential
	,	ingressive case
	,,,,	interjection (incl. 'filler'), interjective
	,	instrumental case
		instantiated
	,	interrogative (=); content interrogative mood
		internal evidential
		within (a solid object). May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as,, etc. if not.
		interessive
		interpellative mood
		interfix
	,	intentional conditional, intentive future
		complement of interest
		introversive
	,,,,,	intensifier, intensive
		intentive
		inverse
		inverse number (as in Kiowa: sg of default pl, pl of default sg)
		inward
IO	,	indirect object(ive)
		immediate past. =
		indirective past
		impeditive
		(a) impersonal passive (passive w/o promotion to subject); (b) impersonalizer (agent impersonalizer)
		indirect question, self-addressed question
		irregular (compounded with other glosses, e.g. irregular locative)
	cn?,,	irrealis mood
	,	irrelevence (=
		indirect speech
		impersonal subject
		immediate scope
	,,	iterative aspect
		intangible
		intermittent
	,	itive
		instrument voice/focus/trigger
		impersonal verb construction
		thematic
		jussive mood
		kinship suffix
		known
		(used to form various lative cases)
		low variety/code, in adiglossic situation
		local (exophoric) person (= 1/2)
L2		tags translation as code-switching.
		lower animacy (cf.)
		lative case (=, direction)
		limited control
		locational
		vowel or consonant emphasis lengthening
		lexical-thematic (affix), lexical
		ligature, possessor ligature
		limitative
		likely (modality)
		land gender
		lower level (spatial deixis)	^[98]
		landmark
	,	linking morph, linking interfix
		last (= family) name
	,	linker, linking element: an interfix or a ligature
		locative case (includes essive case), locative verb
		logophoric (speaker-logophoric PN, addressee-logophoric PN)
		delocutive
		linking particle
		limiting quantifier
		lexical stem
		locative/location voice/focus/trigger
		linking vowel
		lengthened vowel
		masculine gender (or ms masculine singular,, or mp masculine plural)
		(a) modal case (prefix on case abbreviation, e.g. modal ablative) (b) marked (e.g. marked non-future)
		malefactive case
		male speaker
		manner; mood - aspect - negation (e.g. purpose-manner converb)
		matutinal (in the morning, upon waking)
		modal clitic
	,	meditative
		multiple event
		measure
		(a) mediative; (b) medial (e.g. medial past, medial demonstrative =); (c) middle voice (=)
		maximal field of view
	,,,	middle voice, mediopassive	^[99]
		mimetic (≈)	^[100]
		minimal number
		(ad)mirative	^[101] ^[102]
		negative mirative
		miscellaneous gender
		mitigation
		modal locative
	,	modal case (modalis), e.g. certainty
	, ^(modal particle)	mood, modal, modal particle
		modifier
		momentane, momentative (single-event verb)
		monofocal person
		motion (combined with location glosses), mutative
		movement
		maximal scope
		main speech-act participant (= 1st person in assertions, 2nd in questions)
		maṣdar (verbal noun)
		mental state (classifier)
	,,	multiplicative case, numeral
		multal
		mover
	,	neuter gender (or ns neuter singular [cf. {{sc|nsg}} ''non-singular''],, or np neuter plural) Sometimes = non-human.
N		noun (as a gloss in nominalizer)
	n-,	non-, in-, un-, a- (e.g., non-singular; , non-past; , non-present; , non-future; , non-feminine; , non-finite; , non-possessed; , n1 non-1st person [i.e. 2/3], non-3rd person; , imperfective)
		name (feminine name, geographic name, masculine name, proper name or place name, place name, personal name)
	cn?	narrative tense
		noncontrol
		noun-class marker
	,,,,,	incompletive/noncompletive aspect (normally =)
		in contemporative (perfective appositional)
		noncurative
	,,,	indefinite
		necessitative
	,	negation, negative (existential negation, identity negation)
		negatory, negator
		final negator
		negative nominalization
	,	neutral aspect
		non-extended
		non-final form/marker (cf. non-feminine)
		non-finite (cf. non-feminine)
		non-finite conditional
	cn?	non-finite (nonfinite verb, non-finite clause) (may be ambiguous with non-feminine)
		non-future neutral disjunct
		non-future perfective disjunct
	, n	non-human
	,	non-masculine
	,,,,,,,,,,,,,,	nominalizer/nominalization (e.g. patient nominalizer)	^[103] ^[104]
		nominative case
		S-only nominative (S case in tripartite system, =)
		'not yet'
		noninstigational
		neuter plural
		noun particle (cf. NP 'noun phrase')
		near past
		non-past completive
		noun-phrase delimiter
		noun prefix
	,,,,,,	imperfective aspect
	,	non-possessed (marker of unpossessed noun)
		non-past progressive
		near (as in 'near distal')
		non-subject (see oblique case)
		non-singular
	,	new situation
		non - speech-participant perspective (cf. non-specific)
	,,	atelic
		neutral direction
	cn?,,	intransitive (covers an intransitive case for the S argument, =)
		non-topical subject
		numeral, numerative (numeral classifier)
		neutral version (cf. subjective version)
		nonvisual experiential (evidential)
	,	non-visual (evidential: non-visual sensory); invisible (deixis)
		nominal cyclical expansion (cf.)
	,	nonvolitional, avolitional, involuntative/involitive
		non-witnessed
	(=)	non-experienced past
		object(ive) (objective ablative, objective evitative), 3m 3m object, 2sg object
	,	object(ive), object agreement (topical object); objective case
		oblique case, oblique form of pronoun
		observation
		obviative
		object focus. = or
		inverted object
		object marker
		onomatopoeia
		object prefix
		opposite
		optative mood (=)
		orientation (direction) marker
		open reference (not specifically or)
		ordinal numeral
		ordinary
		origin, originative
		oblique stem
		onstage region
		non-main speech-act participant (= 2nd or 3rd persion in assertions, 1st or 3rd in questions)
		outward
		objective version
		pre-, post- (prehodiernal, postcrastinal)
		proper (as opposed to common: absolutitive proper case; genitive proper case. Cf. personal (proper) article.
		previous (evidence)
		possessor:, 3f, 3m (1st, 2nd, 3rd masc & fem possessor). = etc.
		past anterior
		plural imperative
		passive/imperative (=)
	,,	passive voice
		past absolutive
		patientive (=) Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding, as it is not the value of a morphological category.
		pausal, pause
	, cn?, pc	paucal number (or mpc masculine paucal, or fpc feminine paucal; greater paucal)	^[105]
		past completive
		concord particle
		perfective converb
		'polysemic clause linkage marker'
		(a) completive participle; (b) participatory evidence
		past, deferred realization
		previous event, different subject
		perpetuity
		previous event
-pe		plural exclusive (=)
		pegative case (a special case for the giver)
		pejorative
		perambulative
		peripheral
	cn?,	perlative case
		permission, permissive mood
		permanent
		personal (personal evidential / personal experience, personal agency, personal experience); personal/proper article (=); 'personal' affix (= 4th person)
	,	persistive
		personal experience (=)
		pertensive
		pervasive
	,	perfective aspect
		past habitual
		phasal aspect
-pi		plural inclusive (=)
		progressive imperfective
		past imperfective
		physical inferential
		personal knowledge
	p,	plural (but also 1p, also 3mp)
	,,,,,,,	pluperfect
,	,,,	pluractional (= verbal plural)	^[106]
		predicate marker
	,, cn	proper noun/name, personal name (e.g. proper-noun determiner)	^[107]
PO		primary object
		patient-orientated verb
		postdirective (= postlative)
		postelative case
	,	postessive case ('after')
		polite register
		positive
	,,	possessive, possessor (2nd-person possessive; possessive classifier)
	,	possible, modal possibility
		possessed
		postlocative (behind). May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as, or, etc. if not.
	,	postposition, postpositional case
		post-terminal aspect
	,,	postlative case, or 'postdirective'
	cn?	potential mood (cf.)
		(a) predicative possessive particle; (b) present progressive; (c) past perfect; (d) pragmatic particle
		active perfect participle
		post-terminal past
		perfect participle
		past perfective (= perfect)	^[108]
		(a) past passive participle; (b) past perfect participle
	,, [cn], [cn]	passive participle, past participle
		pseudo-passive
		pragmatic (in pragmatic particle)
		precedence
		precative mood (requests)
	,	precondition (athematic precondition, thematic precondition)
	,	precise, precision
		predicative affix, predicative
		prediction
		preposition, prepositional case
		preterite (=)
		previous (in evidentials)
		preventive
	,,	perfect
	,	performative
	,	prior, preceding
	,	privative case
	,,	pronominal base, (only) proform
		probabilitive
		procomplement
		product verbalizer
	,	progressive aspect
	,	prohibitive mood ('don't!')
	,	prolative case (=)
		prolonged action
		proprietive case (quality of having X)
		proper-noun marker
	,	propositive mood (inclusive jussive)	^[109]
		prosecutive case ('across', 'along')	^[110]
	, cn?	prospective aspect or mood (past prospective)
		protasis
		pro-verb
	,	proximal demonstrative proximate (e.g. proximate imperative)
		property predication
	,	present tense
		prescriptive
		presentative
	ps-	pseudo: ps pseudo-antipassive, ps pseudo-passive
		passing state
		passé simple
		undergoer (patient-role subject)
		previous same agent of v.t. (previous same subject)
		previous event, same subject of v.i. (previous same agent); and previous event, same subject of v.i. and v.t.
	,	possessum (impersonal), possessed
		possessor
	,,,,	past tense (e.g. past indefinite, modal past, simple past)
		past nominalization
		past/present (different readings on different word classes)
		potent case inflection
	,,,,,,	particle (Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding this and instead translating/glossing the meaning.), particalizer
	,,,,,,,,,	participle, participial (mood)
		path
	,,,,,	partitive case
	,,,,,	punctual aspect, punctiliar
	,	purposive case/converb (non-purposive)
	,,	patient/object voice/focus/trigger	^[111]
		pivot form/nominal
		possessive verbalizer
	,,	preverb
		post-verbal particle (only particle so glossed)
		possessive suffix
	,,, QP	question word or particle (=)
		quantity marker
	,, QM	question marker (usually =)
		qualifier
		quantifier
	,	quotative (quotative case, quotative mood, quotation marker)
		quotative verb
		rational gender (thinking beings) (or rs rational singular, or rp rational plural)
		reflexive (e.g. 3rd-person reflexive)
		relational (prefix on case abbreviation)
	,	root extension
		realis/assertive
		repeated action
		relative agreement
		raritive
		refactive
		reactive (responding)
	,,	realis mood
	,	recent, recent past (recent past tense, recent perfect)
		receptive
	,,,	reciprocal voice
	,,,,	reduplication, reduplicant (avoid if possible; instead gloss with meaning of reduplicated element)
		referential, referentive
	,,,,,,	reflexive (reflexive pronoun/possessive, reflexive voice; '' used with person-number-gender)
		regal (e.g. pronouns)
		regularity
		regressive
		(a) relative clause marker (relativizer); (b) relative pronoun affix; (c) relational (relational classifier) (d) relative case (possessor + A role) (e) e.g. relative past
		relative future
		relevance
	,	remote: or or remote past tense, or or remote future tense; also remote past tense
	,	(a) repetitive aspect (cf) (b) repetitive numeral (c) repeated word in repetition
	,	resultative (resultative noun)	^[112]
		resignative
		residue class
		returnative
		revisionary
		referential-focus
		relational
	,	resumptive marker, resumptive pronoun
		respect
		responsive
		retrospective (recollection; synonym for 'perfect' in some traditions) (past retrospective)
		reversative, reversive
		reverential
		reflexive/middle voice
		relative marker
		result nominalizer
	, $	(empty tag to mark second element of a divided root)
		royal (e.g. pronouns)
		(a) recent past, = (b) remote past, =
		reflexive-possessive
		remote past continuous
		remote past inferred
		remote past reported
		remote past
	,,,	reported evidential (=); reportative
		remote past visual
	,	rhetorical question
	,,	reflexive/reciprocal	^[113]
		reason
	,,	restrictive (restrictive numeral, adverbial)
		roundtrip
		reason voice/focus/trigger
		subjective (subjective ablative, subjective evitative), 3f 3f subject
		speaker authority (cf.)
		speaker-addressee authority
		salient
		speech-act participant (cf.)
		subelative case ('from under')
		self-benefactive
	cn?,	subessive case ('under')
	,,,,	subject case, subject agreement (non-subject)	^[114]
	,	subjective, subjective speaker perspective
		sceptical
		sudden-discovery tense
		simultaneous event, different subject
		same event (cf) (same event, different argument/subject)
		second-hand (secondhand evidential, secondhand imperative)
		sejunct (opposite of conjunct)
	,	semelfactive aspect ('once')	^[115]
		special evaluative marker
	,,	sensory evidential mood, = + (non-visual sensory)
		spatial separation, separative
		sequential
		serial marker
		subject focus
		stem formation
		sentence-final marker
		softener
		sentence focus
	,	sentence-final particle/suffix
	s,	singular (but also 1s, also 3ms)
	,,,	singulative number, singulative nominal
		subject honorific	^[116]
		simultaneous aspect, simultaneity
	,	similative (e.g. plural based on prototypical member of group)	^[117]
	s	singular intransitive action
		inverted subject
		situative (situational aspect)
	,,,,,	subjunctive mood (and may be ambiguous with 'subject')
		suck-teeth (= kiss-teeth)	^[118]
		same level (spatial deixis)
		series marker
		semblative
		semeliterative
		same reference
		same object
		(a) sociative case (socialis); (b) sociative causative	^[119] ^[120]
	,,,	specific, specifying (nonspecific: cf. also entry)
		sentence particle (=). See usage note at particle and .
		simple past, perfective past
		subject prefix
		speaker: speaker-proximate, demonstrative near speaker
		spatial
		specifier
		speculative mood
		speaker-anchored, speaker perspective
		spotlighting
		spontaneous
		(a) same referent, (b) switch reference
	,	source
		self-reporting pronoun
		same-subject/actor/argument marker (cf)
		same-subject overlap ('while')
		same-subject succession ('then')
		simultaneous event, same subject (of intransitive clause, of transitive clause)
	,,,
	, $	(empty tag to mark second element of a divided stem)
		stimulative
		strong
		sublocative (under). May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,, etc. if a single morpheme, as, or, etc. if not.
	,	subitive.
	,,	sublative case ('down under'), also 'subdirective'	^[121]
	,,,	subordinator ('that'), subordinate
		subsequent
		subsecutive mood
		substitutive
	,	substantivizer (= nominalizer)
		successive ('then')
		suggestive mood
		supine
	[dbl check next]	superlative (most: cf. super-lative, super-essive)
	, cn?,	supplicative, supplication
	,	superelative case ('from on top of', 'from above')
	,	superlocative. May be equivalent to or . Compounded for,,, etc. if a single morpheme, as, or, etc. if not.
	, cn?,,,, cn?	superessive case ('above'; 'on')
	,,,	super-lative, superdirective ('to above')
	,	(pre)suppositive, presumptive, suppositional, presupposition
		surprise
		serial verb construction
		switch
		symmetric
		trigger (used for,, etc.) [old fashioned; 'voice' is now standard]
		thematic (thematic tense-aspect-mood, thematic antecedent, etc.)
	,	temporal
		tense/aspect
		tag question
		tense–aspect–mood
		tense–aspect–mood plus person/number	^[122]
		(a) telic aspect (cf) (anticipatory telic, culminatory telic) (b) contrastive emphasis	^[123]
		temporal case temporal converb
		temporarily
		number of tens (in a numeral)
		tentative
	,	terminative ~ terminalis ('up to') (case, aspect)
		non-subject
	,,,	thematic element (e.g. thematic consonant, suffix); theme
		trajector
		teknonym
		tense marker: hrs, days, yrs for events hours, days, years ago
		tendency
	,,	tense Lehmann (2004) recommends avoiding this and specifying the tense.
	,	topic marker (topical patientive)
	,	topicalizer
		totalitative, totality
	,	transitive verb (transitivizer); transitive case (rare)
		transitional sound
		trajector
	,	transformative ('becoming', dynamic equiv. of essive)
		(transposition of deictic zero away from ego, e.g. 'uphill' from an object rather than from the speaker)	^[124]
	,,,, cn?,, ^translative, ^translocative	(a) translative case (becoming, into); (b) translocative (across; may be compounded for e.g. pass in front of, pass behind, pass under)
	,	trial number
		retriplication [note: usually best to gloss with the meaning and {{angbr|~}}]	^[125]
		transmutative
		transnumeral (neither nor)	^[126]
		transfer of possession
		transitivizer	^[127]
		(a) thematic suffix; (b) tense
		thematic vowel
		truth-value focus
		uninflected (uninflected auxiliary)
		unit augmented
		upcoast
		uncertain future
	,,, cn?	undergoer role (cf)
		uphill, inland (= . cf .)
		upper level (spatial deixis)
		uncertain mood
		unified
		unspecified (person, tense)
		'unwillingness' marker
		upward
		upriver (cf away from the water)
		usitative, for usual, customary or typical events
		utilitive
		undergoer voice/focus/trigger (=)	^[128]
		uncertain visual
		unwitnessed past
		viewer
		trigger (used for,,, etc.)
		verbal adjective
		intransitive animate verb
		valency-increasing; valence marker
		validator
	V	verbal (as a gloss in, verbalizer, verbal plural =, verb class, verbal dative, verbal allative, etc.)	^[129]
	,,,,,,,	verbalizer	^[130]
		vespertinal (in the evening)
		verb class marker / classifier
		voluntary comitative
Vd	, v.d.	verb, ditransitive (e.g. as a covert category)	^[131]
		vegetable (food) gender. Some authors distinguish gender from food affix.
		venitive/ventive (coming towards; cf andative)
		veridical, veridical mood (certain conditional; cf.)
		verificative
		versionizer; versative
		vertical classifier
Vi	, v.i.	verb, intransitive (e.g. as a covert category)
		vialis case
		intransitive inanimate verb
		virtual mode	^[132]
	,	(a) visual evidential (present visual, previous visual evidence); (b) visible (demonstrative, e.g.)
		verbal locative
		verbal noun	^[133]
		verbal cyclical expansion (cf.)
		vocative case
		volitive mood volitional (cf. avolitional)
		verbal particle
Vr	, v.r.	verb, reflexive (e.g. as a covert category)
		verb-stem marker
Vt	, v.t.	verb, transitive (e.g. as a covert category)
		transitive animate verb
		transitive inanimate verb
		exclamatory wh- clause ('what a ...!')
		interrogative pronoun (wh-word), wh- agreement
		wh- question	^[134]
		witnessed evidential (cf.)
	,	witnessed past	^[135]
	?	(unidentified morpheme)
	,,,	yes - no question, polar question/interrogative (e.g. vs)
		-(al)izer (e.g. adjectivizer, nominalizer, transitivizer, verbalizer)||- ! ||zoic gender (animals)|^[136] |} Kinship It is common to abbreviate grammatical morphemes but to translate lexical morphemes. However, kin relations commonly have no precise translation, and in such cases they are often glossed with anthropological abbreviations. Most of these are transparently derived from English; an exception is 'Z' for 'sister'. (In anthropological texts written in other languages, abbreviations from that language will typically be used, though sometimes the single-letter abbreviations of the basic terms listed below are seen.) A set of basic abbreviations is provided for nuclear kin terms (father, mother, brother, sister, husband, wife, son, daughter); additional terms may be used by some authors, but because the concept of e.g. 'aunt' or 'cousin' may be overly general or may differ between communities, sequences of basic terms are often used for greater precision. There are two competing sets of conventions, of one-letter and two-letter abbreviations:^[137] ^[138] ^[139] ! 1-Letter Gloss! 2-Letter Gloss! Meaning! Equivalent sequence of nuclear relations A Au aunt = MZ or FZ / MoSi or FaSi B Br brother [basic term] C Ch child = S or D / So or Da Cu cousin = MZD, MZS, MBD, MBS, FZD, FZS, FBD, FBS = MoSiDa, MoSiSo, MoBrDa, MoBrSo, FaSiDa, FaSiSo, FaBrDa, FaBrSo D Da daughter [basic term] e, E o, el elder/older (e.g. eB, eZ) Ego ego ego (center of reference) (EgoE = one's spouse) ex ex ex- (e.g. exH, exW) F Fa father [basic term] F female kin G Gr grand- e.g. GF = PF (MF or FF); GS = CS (SS or DS) e.g. GrFa = PaFa (MoFa or FaFa); GrSo = ChSo (SoSo or DaSo) Gen generation (see below) H Hu husband [basic term] LA La -in-law e.g. BLA = WB or HB or ZH / BrLa = WiBr or HuBr or SiHu M Mo mother [basic term] M male kin Ne nephew = BrSo or SiSo Ni niece = BrDa or SiDa P Pa parent = M or F / Mo or Fa S So son [basic term] SI, G Sb sibling = B or Z / Br or Si SP, E Sp spouse = H or W / Hu or Wi st step- U Un uncle = MB or FZ / MoBr or FaBr W Wi wife [basic term] y, Y y, yo younger (e.g. yB, yZ) Z Si sister [basic term] (m.s.) (m.s.) male speaking (when kin terms differ by gender of speaker) (f.s.) (f.s.) female speaking (when kin terms differ by gender of speaker) μ ♂ male ego (when kin terms differ by gender of the person they are related to) φ ♀ female ego (when kin terms differ by gender of the person they are related to) ∥ ∥ parallel (across a brother–brother or sister–sister link) + + cross (across a brother–sister link) os os opposite sex (of ego) (some langs distinguish siblings of the same and opposite gender from the ego; e.g. for some Tok Pisin speakers, a woman's susa (osSb, from English 'sister') is her brother and her brata (ssSb, from English 'brother') is her sister) ss ss same sex (as ego) cf. os (opposite sex) above These are concatenated, e.g. MFZS = MoFaSiSo 'mother's father's sister's son', yBWF = yBrWiFa 'younger brother's wife's father'. 'Elder/older' and 'younger' may affix the entire string, e.g. oFaBrSo (an older cousin  - specifically father's brother's son), MBDy (a younger cousin  - specifically mother's brother's daughter) or a specific element, e.g. MFeZS 'mother's father's elder sister's son', HMeB 'husband's mother's elder brother'. 'Gen' indicates the generation relative to the ego, with ∅ for the same (zero) generation. E.g. Gen∅Ch (child of someone in the same generation, i.e. of a sibling or cousin); ♂Gen+1F (female one generation up, i.e. mother or aunt, of a male); Gen−2M (male two generations down, i.e. grandson or grandnephew). 'Cross' and 'parallel' indicate a change or lack of change in gender of siblings in the chain of relations. Parallel aunts and uncles are MoSi and FaBr; cross-aunts and uncles are FaSi and MoBr. Cross-cousins (+Cu) and parallel cousins (∥Cu) are children of the same. Parallel niece and nephew are children of a man's brother or woman's sister; cross-niece and nephew are the opposite. 'Elder' and 'younger' occurs before these markers: o∥Cu, y+Cu, and the gender of the ego comes at the very beginning, e.g. ♂o∥CuF, ♀y+CuM. Literature Leipzig Glossing Rules Payne, Thomas E. 1997. Describing Morphosyntax. Summary of case forms: Book: Blake, Barry J. . Second . 1994 . 2001 . Case . Cambridge University Press . Cambridge . 195–206. References

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