Ghulat Explained

The (Arabic: غُلَاة||exaggerators, extremists) were a branch of early Shiʿa. The term mainly refers to a wide variety of extinct Shiʿi sects active in 8th and 9th-century Kufa in Lower Mesopotamia, and who despite their sometimes significant differences shared several common ideas.[1] These common ideas included the attribution of a divine nature to the Imams, metempsychosis (the belief that souls can migrate between different human and non-human bodies), a particular gnostic creation myth involving pre-existent 'shadows' whose fall from grace produced the material world, and an emphasis on secrecy and dissociation from outsiders.[2] They were named by other Shiʿi and Sunni Muslims for their purportedly "exaggerated" veneration of Muhammad (–632) and his family, most notably Ali (–661) and his descendants, the Imams.[3]

The ideas of the have at times been compared to those of the late antique gnostics,[4] but the extent of this similarity has also been questioned.[5] Some ideas, such as the notion of the Occultation and return of the Imam, have been influential in the development of Twelver Shi'ism.[6] Later Ismaʿili Shiʿi authors such as Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman (died) and Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani (died after 971) also adapted ideas to reformulate their own doctrines.[7] The only sect still in existence today are the Alawites, historically known as 'Nusayris' after their founder Ibn Nusayr (died after 868).[8]

A relatively large number of writings have survived to this day. Previously, only some works preserved in Ismaʿilism were available to scholars such as the Umm al-Kitāb "Mother of the Book", which was published in 1936 (8th–11th centuries),[9] the Kitāb al-Haft wal-aẓilla "Book of the Seven and the Shadows" published in 1960 (8th–11th centuries),[10] and the Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ "Book of the Path" published in 1995 (–941).[11] However, between 2006 and 2013 numerous texts that have been preserved in the Alawite tradition were published in the Alawite Heritage Series.[12]

History

Origins (680–700)

Like Shi'i Islam itself, the origins of the lie in the pro-Alid movements of the late 7th century that fought against the Umayyad Caliphate to bring one of Ali's descendants to power. The earliest attested use of the term is found in several reports about the followers of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, leader of a revolt against the Umayyads on behalf of Ali's son Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, which was part of the Second Fitna, 680–692. According to these reports, some of al-Thaqafi's followers organized regular meetings in the houses of various Kufan women to listen to diviners prophesying about future events.[13] The followers who attended these meetings were denounced as by other followers of al-Thaqafi.[14] The Arabic verb, 'to exaggerate', 'to transgress the proper bounds', was in broader use at the time to denounce perceived 'un-Islamic' activities,[15] which may include soothsaying . But the use of the term here could hardly have been in reference this, since al-Thaqafi himself often practiced soothsaying, and was respected for this by all of his followers.[16] Rather, the reason for the use of the term for this subgroup of al-Thaqafi's followers may be more specifically related to the Quranic use of the word ('exaggerate').[17] It occurs in the Quran twice, in surahs an-Nisa (4:171) and al-Ma'idah (5:77), as follows (occurrence of the word underlined):

The "People of the Book" mentioned here refers to Christians, who are castigated for ascribing a divine status to the prophet Jesus. He was not a "child" of God, but "only a messenger" who like all normal human beings "ate food".[18] The Christian claim that "God is the Messiah, son of Mary" is characterized in 5:72 and other verses as 'disbelief', as is the claim that "God is the third of three" (a reference to the Trinity, in which Jesus is believed to be consubstantial with the Godhead).[19] The Quranic concept of 'exaggeration' in both cases refers to 'exaggerating' the status of a prophet as being more-than-human.[20]

It seems probable that the followers of al-Thaqafi who gathered in the Kufan houses were likewise denounced by their colleagues for having exaggerated the status not of Jesus, but of Ali.[21] There had been an earlier movement in Kufa called the, named after the South Arabian Jewish convert Abd Allah ibn Saba', who according to some reports had insisted that Ali was not dead and would return to seek revenge upon those that opposed him.[22]

Since remnants of the still existed in the time of al-Thaqafi, and since one of the Kufan women at whose house the group denounced as gathered belonged to the, it may well be that this group also belonged to the .[23] After Mukhtar al-Thaqafi died in 687, his movement sometimes came to be referred to as the, and when Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, the Alid whom al-Thaqafi's movement had supported, also died in 700, his followers, the, claimed that ibn al-Hanafiyya had gone into hiding, and that he would return before the Day of Judgment as the Mahdi to establish a state of righteousness and justice.[24]

It thus appears that in its earliest usage, the term referred to those Shi'a who taught the dual doctrine of the Occultation and return of the Imam, which other Muslims perceived as an 'exaggerated' view of the Imam's status.[25] Later sources would also attribute to these earliest some of the ideas for which the later would become known, most notably the outright divinization of Ali, but there is no good evidence that this was the case.[26] Rather, the 8th-/9th-century need to attribute these ideas to the earliest probably arose from the fact that, while groups like the had traditionally been known as, their actual core ideas of occultation and return had become standard tenets of Twelver and Isma'ili Shi'ism, and so other ideas needed to be ascribed to them to justify the label.[27]

Nevertheless, the later did probably originate from these early groups,[28] and some glimpses of later ideas may sometimes be found, for example the belief in metempsychosis, which was attributed to early 7th-century leaders such as the women Hind bint al-Mutakallifa or Layla bint Qumama al-Muzaniyya.

One important difference with the later groups is the prominent role played by women, who organized the early meetings in their houses and who often acted as teachers, upholding a circle of disciples.[29] This stands in stark contrast to the ideas of the later, who ranked women between the status of animals and men in their spiritual hierarchy.[30]

Uprisings and development of doctrine (700–750)

Bayan ibn Sam'an al-Tamimi

Bayan ibn Sam'an (died 737) was the leader of a sect called the .[31]

al-Mughira ibn Sa'id

Al-Mughira ibn Sa'id (died 737), leader of a sect called the, was an adept of the fifth Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (677–732).[32]

Abu Mansur al-Ijli

Abu Mansur al-Ijli (died –744) was the leader of a sect called the who was killed by the Umayyad governor Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi.[33]

Abd Allah ibn Harb

Abd Allah ibn Harb (died 748–9) was the leader of a sect called the who was killed by the Abbasid activist Abu Muslim al-Khurasani.[34]

Political quietism and diffusion of sects (750–)

Abu al-Khattab

Abu al-Khattab al-Asadi (died 755) was the leader of a sect called the who was killed by the Abbasid governor Isa ibn Musa. For a time, he was the designated spokesman of the sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (–765), but Ja'far repudiated him in .[35]

al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi

See main article: al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi. Al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799) was a close confidant of Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim (died 799) who for some time was a follower of Abu al-Khattab. Imami heresiographers regarded him as the leader of a sect called the, but it not certain whether this sect ever existed. A number of important writings were attributed to him by later authors (see below).

Ishaq al-Ahmar al-Nakha'i

Ishaq al-Ahmar al-Nakha'i (died 899) was the leader of a sect called the . Some writings were also attributed to him.[36]

Ibn Nusayr and al-Khasibi

See main article: Ibn Nusayr, al-Khasibi and Alawites. Ibn Nusayr (died after 868) and al-Khasibi (died 969) were the two most important figures in the founding of Nusayrism (called Alawism in the contemporary context), the only sect that still exists today.[37]

writings

Mother of the Book

See main article: Umm al-kitab (Shi'i book). The is a syncretic Shi'i work originating in the milieus of 8th-century Kufa. It was later transplanted to Syria by the 10th-century Nusayris, whose final redaction of the work was preserved in a Persian translation produced by the Nizari Isma'ilis of Central Asia.[38] The work only survives in Persian.[39] It contains no notable elements of Isma'ili doctrine,[40] but given the fact that Isma'ili authors starting from the 10th century were influenced by early ideas such as those found in the,[41] and especially given the influence of these ideas on later Tayyibi Isma'ilism,[42] some Isma'ilis do regard the work as one of the most important works in their tradition.[38]

The work presents itself as a revelation of secret knowledge by the Shi'i Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (677–732) to his disciple Jabir ibn Yazid al-Ju'fi (died –750).[43] Its doctrinal contents correspond to a large degree to what 9th/10th-century heresiographers ascribed to various sects,[43] with a particular resemblance to the ideas of the .[38] It contains a lengthy exposition of the typical myth of the pre-existent shadows (Arabic:) who created the world by their fall from grace, as is also found in the attributed to al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799).[43]

Book of the Seven and the Shadows

The ('Book of the Seven and the Shadows'), also known as ('Book of the Noble Seven'/'Noble Book of the Seven) or simply as (Book of the Seven'), 8th–11th century, is an important text that was falsely attributed to al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi (died before 799). It sets out in great detail the myth of pre-existent 'shadows' (Arabic:) who created the world by their fall from grace, and who were imprisoned in material human bodies as punishment for their hubris.[43] This theme of pre-existent shadows, which also appears in other important works such as the, seems to have been typical of the early Kufan .[43]

Great emphasis is placed upon the need to keep the knowledge received from Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is referred to in the work as ('our lord'), from falling into the wrong hands. This secret knowledge is entrusted by Ja'far to al-Mufaddal, but is reserved only for true believers .[44] It involves such notions as the transmigration of souls (or metempsychosis) and the idea that seven Adams exist in the seven heavens, each one of them presiding over one of the seven historical world cycles .[45] This latter idea may reflect an influence from Isma'ilism,[44] where the appearance of each new prophet (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Isma'il) is likewise thought to initiate a new world cycle.[46]

The work consists of at least eleven different textual layers which were added over time, each of them containing slightly different versions of concepts and ideas.[47] The earliest layers were written in 8th/9th-century Kufa, perhaps partly by al-Mufaddal himself, or by his close associates Yunus ibn Zabyan and Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835).[48] A possible indication for this is the fact that Muhammad ibn Sinan also wrote two works dealing with the theme of pre-existent, world-creating 'shadows': the ('Book of the Shadows') and the ('Book of the Lights and the Veils').[49] Biographical sources also list several other 8th/9th-century Kufan authors who wrote a or 'Book of the Shadows'.[50] In total, at least three works closely related to al-Mufaddal's are extant, all likely dating to the 8th or 9th century:[51]

  1. Muhammad ibn Sinan's
  2. an anonymous work called the ('Book of the Apparitions and the Shadows')
  3. another anonymous work also called the ('Book of the Shadows').

Though originating in the milieus of the early Kufan, the was considerably expanded by members of a later sect called the Nusayris, who were active in 10th-century Syria.[52] The Nusayris were probably also responsible for the work's final 11th-century form.[53] Unlike most other works, however, the was not preserved by the Nusayris, but by the Syrian Nizari Isma'ilis.[53] Like the, which was transmitted by the Nizari Isma'ilis of Central Asia, it contains ideas that are largely unrelated to Isma'ili doctrine,[54] but that did nevertheless influence various later Isma'ili authors starting from the 10th century.[55]

Book of the Path

The ('Book of the Path') is another purported dialogue between al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi and Ja'far al-Sadiq, likely composed in the period between the Minor and the Major Occultation (874–941).[53] This work deals with the concept of an initiatory 'path' (Arabic:) leading the adept on a heavenly ascent towards God, with each of the seven heavens corresponding to one of seven degrees of spiritual perfection. It also contains references to such typically ideas as (the manifestation of God in human form), (metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul), / (metamorphosis or reincarnation into non-human forms), and the concept of creation through the fall of pre-existent beings (as in the, see above).[53]

The philosophical background of the work is given by the late antique concept of a great chain of being linking all things together in one great cosmic hierarchy. This hierarchical system extends from the upper world of spirit and light (populated by angels and other pure souls) to the lower of world of matter and darkness (populated by humans, and below them animals, plants and minerals). Humanity is perceived as taking a middle position in this hierarchy, being located at the top of the world of darkness and at the bottom of the world of light.[56] Those human beings who lack the proper religious knowledge and belief are reborn into other human bodies, which are likened to 'shirts' (sing.) that a soul can put on and off again. This is called or . But grave sinners are reborn instead into animal bodies, and the worst offenders are reborn into the bodies of plants or minerals .[57] On the other hand, those believers who perform good works and advance in knowledge also travel upwards on the ladder, putting on ever more pure and luminous 'shirts' or bodies, ultimately reaching the realm of the divine.[58] This upwards path is represented as consisting of seven stages above that of humanity, each located in one of the seven heavens:[59]

the Tested, first heaven

the Devout, second heaven

the Elect, third heaven

the Noble, fourth heaven

the Chief, fifth heaven

the Unique, sixth heaven

the Gate, seventh heaven

At every degree the initiate receives the chance to gain a new level of 'hidden' or 'occult' knowledge. If the initiate succeeds at internalizing this knowledge, they may ascend to the next degree. If, however, they lose interest or start to doubt the knowledge already acquired, they may lose their pure and luminous 'shirt', receiving instead a heavier and darker one, and descend down the scale of being again. Those who reach the seventh degree (that of or 'Gate') are granted wondrous powers such as making themselves invisible, or seeing and hearing all things –including a beatific vision of God– without having to look or listen. Most notably, they are able to manifest themselves to ordinary beings in the world of matter, by taking on the form of a human and appearing to anyone at will.[60] This ability to manifest in human form the 'Gates' in the seventh heaven share with God.[56]

The theme of a heavenly ascent through seven degrees of spiritual perfection is also explored in other works, including the anonymous ('Book of Degrees and Stages'), as well as various works attributed to Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835), Ibn Nusayr (died after 868), and others.[61]

Bibliography

Tertiary sources

Secondary sources

Primary sources

Alawite Heritage Series

al-Mufaddal,

al-Mufaddal,

Anonymous,

Anonymous,

Other

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. .
  2. . On secrecy and dissociation, see .
  3. On the in general, see ; ; . On their cosmology and theology, see .
  4. See, e.g., ; .
  5. See, e.g., ; .
  6. .
  7. . The influences on Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman's are discussed by . The influence of these ideas was pervasive in Tayyibi Isma'ilism (see De Smet 2020, pp. 320–321).
  8. . On Ibn Nusayr, see ; . On Alawism-Nusayrism in general, see ; ; .
  9. . Full Italian translation in, partial German translations in,, .
  10. . New editions of the full text were published by and, and a critical edition of chapter 59 by .
  11. . New edition by .
  12. . For the texts, see . The first major study to take the newly available texts into account is .
  13. .
  14. .
  15. .
  16. .
  17. .
  18. (commentaries on 4:171 and 5:75).
  19. (commentary on 5:72).
  20. (commentary on 5:77).
  21. .
  22. . On Abd Allah ibn Saba', see the dedicated study by .
  23. .
  24. .
  25. .
  26. . describes the earliest 's (the 's) view of Ali as a type of messianism that was certainly tendentious from a religious point of view, but that stopped short of regarding him as divine.
  27. .
  28. .
  29. .
  30. . E.g., .
  31. See ; ; . See further Tucker, William F. "Bayān ibn Sam‵ān and the Bayāniyya" in .
  32. See ; ; . See further Tucker, William F. "al-Mughīra ibn Sa‵īd and the Mughīriyya" in .
  33. . See further Tucker, William F. "Abū Mansūr al-‵Ijlī and the Mansūriyya" in .
  34. . See further Tucker, William F. "‵Abd Allāh ibn Mu‵āwiya and the Janāhiyya" in .
  35. ; .
  36. .
  37. On Ibn Nusayr, see ; . On al-Khasibi, see ; . On Nusayrism in general, see ; ; .
  38. .
  39. Persian text edited by . Full Italian translation by . Partial German translation by . German translation of some parts of the text in and
  40. .
  41. Early Isma'ili authors who adapted ideas include Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman (died ; see) and Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani (died after 971; see De Smet 2020, pp. 304, 307–308).
  42. .
  43. .
  44. .
  45. . On, see further . On the seven Adams, see . On world cycles, see .
  46. . In the Isma'ili version of the doctrine of world cycles, Muhammad is the initiator of the current, penultimate cycle, while Ja'far al-Sadiq's grandson Muhammad ibn Isma'il the concealed and awaited initiator of the last cycle; see .
  47. . Each layer is analyzed in detail by . still only counted seven layers.
  48. . Muhammad ibn Sinan's date is given by .
  49. . proposed Muhammad ibn Sinan, who was a disciple of al-Mufaddal, as the author of the entire (repeated in), but this was rejected by .
  50. .
  51. . These three works are compared on pp. 65–71 and tentatively dated to the 8th or 9th century on pp. 72–78.
  52. .
  53. .
  54. . On the fact that the originally also was unrelated to Isma'ilism, see .
  55. Early Isma'ili authors who adapted ideas include Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman (died ; see ; the influences on Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman's are discussed by) and Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani (died after 971; see De Smet 2020, pp. 304, 307–308). The influence of these ideas was pervasive in Tayyibi Isma'ilism (see).
  56. .
  57. . Some other forms, like and, are described in the context of Nusayri works by .
  58. .
  59. .
  60. .
  61. . On Ibn Nusayr, see ; .

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