French fries explained

French fries
Alternate Name:Chips, finger chips, fries, frites, hot chips, steak fries, slap chips
Course:Side dish or snack, rarely as a main dish
Served:Hot
Variations:Curly fries, shoestring fries, steak fries, sweet potato fries, chili cheese fries, poutine, crinkle cut fries, waffle fries
Other:Often served with salt and ketchup, mayonnaise, vinegar, barbecue sauce or other sauce
Image Alt:French fries seasoned with salt

French fries (North American English & British English), chips (British and other national varieties),[1] finger chips (Indian English),[2] french-fried potatoes, or simply fries, are batonnet or allumette-cut[3] deep-fried potatoes of disputed origin from Belgium or France. They are prepared by cutting potatoes into even strips, drying them, and frying them, usually in a deep fryer. Pre-cut, blanched, and frozen russet potatoes are widely used, and sometimes baked in a regular or convection oven; air fryers are small convection ovens marketed for frying potatoes.

French fries are served hot, either soft or crispy, and are generally eaten as part of lunch or dinner or by themselves as a snack, and they commonly appear on the menus of diners, fast food restaurants, pubs, and bars. They are often salted and may be served with ketchup, vinegar, mayonnaise, tomato sauce, or other sauces. Fries can be topped more heavily, as in the dishes of poutine, loaded fries or chili cheese fries. French fries can be made from sweet potatoes instead of potatoes. A baked variant, oven fries, uses less or no oil.[4]

Preparation

The standard method for cooking french fries is deep frying, which submerges them in hot fat, nowadays most commonly oil.[5] Vacuum fryers produce potato chips with lower oil content, while maintaining their colour and texture.[6]

The potatoes are prepared by first cutting them (peeled or unpeeled) into even strips, which are then wiped off or soaked in cold water to remove the surface starch, and thoroughly dried.[7] [8] They may then be fried in one or two stages. Chefs generally agree that the two-bath technique produces better results.[9] [10] Potatoes fresh out of the ground can have too high a water content resulting in soggy fries, so preference is for those that have been stored for a while.

In the two-stage or two-bath method, the first bath, sometimes called blanching, is in hot fat (around 160 °C/320 °F) to cook the fries through. This step can be done in advance. Then they are more briefly fried in very hot fat (190 °C/375 °F) to crisp the exterior. They are then placed in a colander or on a cloth to drain, then served. The exact times of the two baths depend on the size of the fries. For example, for 2–3 mm strips, the first bath takes about 3 minutes, and the second bath takes only seconds.

Since the 1960s, most french fries in the US have been produced from frozen Russet potatoes which have been blanched or at least air-dried industrially.[11] [12] [13] [14] The usual fat for making french fries is vegetable oil. In the past, beef suet was recommended as superior,[7] with vegetable shortening as an alternative. McDonald's used a mixture of 93% beef tallow and 7% cottonseed oil until 1990, when they changed to vegetable oil with beef flavouring.[15] [16] Horse fat was standard in northern France and Belgium until recently,[17] and is recommended by some chefs.[18]

Chemical and physical changes

French fries are fried in a two-step process: the first time is to cook the starch throughout the entire cut at low heat, and the second time is to create the golden crispy exterior of the fry at a higher temperature. This is necessary because if the potato cuts are only fried once, the temperature would either be too hot, causing only the exterior to be cooked and not the inside, or not hot enough where the entire fry is cooked, but its crispy exterior will not develop. Although the potato cuts may be baked or steamed as a preparation method, this section will only focus on french fries made using frying oil. During the initial frying process (approximately 150 °C), water on the surface of the cuts evaporates off the surface and the water inside the cuts gets absorbed by the starch granules, causing them to swell and produce the fluffy interior of the fry.[19]

The starch granules are able to retain the water and expand due to gelatinisation. The water and heat break the glycosidic linkages between amylopectin and amylose strands, allowing a new gel matrix to form via hydrogen bonds which aid in water retention. The moisture that gets trapped within the gel matrix is responsible for the fluffy interior of the fry. The gelatinised starch molecules move towards the surface of the fries "forming a thick layer of gelatinised starch" and this layer of pre-gelatinised starch becomes the crisp exterior after the potato cuts are fried for a second time.[20] During the second frying process (approximately 180 °C), the remaining water on the surface of the cuts evaporates and the gelatinised starch molecules that collected towards the potato surface are cooked again, forming the crisp exterior. The golden-brown colour of the fry will develop when the amino acids and glucose on the exterior participate in a Maillard browning reaction.

Name and etymology

In the United States and most of Canada, the term french fries, sometimes capitalised as French fries, or shortened to fries, refers to all dishes of fried elongated pieces of potatoes. in shape and size may have names such as curly fries, shoestring fries, etc.

In the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand, the term chips is generally used instead, though thinly cut fried potatoes are sometimes called french fries or skinny fries, to distinguish them from chips, which are cut thicker. In the US or Canada these more thickly-cut chips might be called steak fries, depending on the shape. The word chips is more often used in North America to refer to potato chips, known in the UK and Ireland as crisps.[21]

Thomas Jefferson had "potatoes served in the French manner" at a White House dinner in 1802.[22] [23] The expression "french fried potatoes" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work Cookery for Maids of All Work by Eliza Warren: "French Fried Potatoes. – Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little salt; fry both sides of a light golden brown colour; drain."[24] This account referred to thin, shallow-fried slices of potato. It is not clear where or when the now familiar deep-fried batons or fingers of potato were first prepared. In the early 20th century, the term "french fried" was being used in the sense of "deep-fried" for foods like onion rings or chicken.[25] [26]

One story about the name "french fries" claims that when the American Expeditionary Forces arrived in Belgium during World War I, they assumed that chips were a French dish because French was spoken in the Belgian Army.[27] But the name existed long before that in English, and the popularity of the term did not increase for decades after 1917.[28] The term was in use in the United States as early as 1886.[29] An 1899 item in Good Housekeeping specifically references Kitchen Economy in France: "The perfection of French fries is due chiefly to the fact that plenty of fat is used."[30]

Origin

Spain

In 1673, the Chilean Francisco Núñez de Pineda mentioned eating "papas fritas" in 1629 and women "sent fried and stewed potatoes" to the chiefs. The exact shape is unclear, likely cubes fried in butter which was customary. However, the cane shape originates from Europe.[31]

Fries may have been invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared from the New World colonies.[32] Professor Paul Ilegems, curator of the Frietmuseum in Bruges, Belgium, believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila of Spain cooked the first french fries, and refers also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine as evidence.[33] [34] Teresa of Ávila was familiar with potatoes via her father and brothers who lived in South America. When she joined a cloister of the Discalced Carmelites, Los Remedios, in Seville she insisted on the cultivation of potatoes in the cloister garden. She cut small figures of Christ from potatoes, fried them in hot oil and ate them. Sometimes these figures fell apart into small strips of an arm or leg which had the fries shape.[35]

Belgian French dispute

The Belgians and French have an ongoing dispute about where fries were invented.[36]

The Belgian food historian Pierre Leclercq has traced the history of the french fry and asserts that "it is clear that fries are of French origin".[37] They became an emblematic Parisian dish in the 19th century. Frédéric Krieger, a Bavarian musician, learned to cook fries at a roaster on rue Montmartre in Paris in 1842, and took the recipe to Belgium in 1844, where he created his business Fritz and sold "la pomme de terre frite à l'instar de Paris" ("Paris-style fried potatoes").[38] [39] The modern style of fries born in Paris around 1855 is different from the domestic fried potato that existed in the 18th century.

From the Belgian standpoint, the popularity of the term "french fries" is explained as "French gastronomic hegemony" into which the cuisine of Belgium was assimilated, because of a lack of understanding coupled with a shared language and geographic proximity of the countries. The Belgian journalist claimed that a 1781 family manuscript recounts that potatoes were deep-fried prior to 1680 in the Meuse valley, as a substitute for frying fish when the rivers were frozen.[40] [33] Gérard never produced the manuscript that supports this claim, and "the historical value of this story is open to question".[41] In any case, it is unrelated to the later history of the french fry, as the potato did not arrive in the region until around 1735. In any case, given 18th-century economic conditions: "it is absolutely unthinkable that a peasant could have dedicated large quantities of fat for cooking potatoes. At most they were sautéed in a pan".[42]

Global use

Netherlands

"French: Pommes frites" or just "French: frites" (French), "frieten" (a word used in Flanders and the southern provinces of the Netherlands) or "patat" (used in the north and central parts of the Netherlands) became the national snack and a substantial part of several national dishes, such as Moules-frites or Steak-frites.[43]

Belgium

Fries are very popular in Belgium, where they are known as Dutch; Flemish: frieten (in Flemish) or French: frites (in Belgian French), and the Netherlands, where among the working classes they are known as patat in the north and, in the south, friet(en).[44] In Belgium, fries are sold in shops called French: [[Friterie|friteries]] (French), Dutch; Flemish: frietkot/Dutch; Flemish: frituur (Flemish), Dutch; Flemish: snackbar (Dutch in The Netherlands) or German: Fritüre/German: Frittüre (German). They are served with a large variety of Belgian sauces and eaten either on their own or with other snacks. Traditionally fries are served in a French: cornet de frites (French), Dutch; Flemish: patatzak/Dutch; Flemish: frietzak/Dutch; Flemish: fritzak (Dutch/Flemish), or German: Frittentüte (German), a white cardboard cone, then wrapped in paper, with a spoonful of sauce (often mayonnaise) on top.

France

In France and other French-speaking countries, fried potatoes are formally French: pommes de terre frites, but more commonly French: pommes frites, French: patates frites, or simply French: frites. The words French: aiguillettes ("needle-ettes") or French: allumettes ("matchsticks") are used when the french fries are very small and thin. One enduring origin story holds that french fries were invented by street vendors on the Pont Neuf bridge in Paris in 1789, just before the outbreak of the French Revolution.[45] However, a reference exists in France from 1775 to "a few pieces of fried potato" and to "fried potatoes".[46] Eating potatoes for sustenance was promoted in France by Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, but he did not mention fried potatoes in particular. A note in a manuscript in U.S. president Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801–1809) mentions "Pommes de terre frites à cru, en petites tranches" ("Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices"). The recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien. The thick-cut fries are called French: pommes Pont-Neuf or simply French: pommes frites (about); thinner variants are French: pommes allumettes (matchstick potatoes; about), and French: pommes paille (potato straws;). French: Pommes gaufrettes are waffle fries. A popular dish in France is steak frites, which is steak accompanied by thin french fries.

Germany

French fries migrated to the German-speaking countries during the 19th century. In Germany, they are usually known by the French words French: pommes frites, or only German: Pommes or German: Fritten (derived from the French words, but pronounced as German words).[47] Often served with ketchup or mayonnaise, they are popular as a side dish in restaurants, or as a street-food snack purchased at an German: Imbissstand (snack stand). Since the 1950s, currywurst has become a widely-popular dish that is commonly offered with fries. Currywurst is a sausage (often bratwurst or bockwurst) in a spiced ketchup-based sauce, dusted with curry powder and served with fries.[48]

United Kingdom

The standard deep-fried cut potatoes in the United Kingdom are called chips, and are cut into pieces between 10and thick. They are occasionally made from unpeeled potatoes (skins showing). British chips are not the same thing as potato chips (an American term); those are called "crisps" in the UK and some other countries. In the UK, chips are part of the popular, and now international, fast food dish fish and chips. In the UK, the name chips are a separate item to french fries; with chips being more thickly cut than french fries, they can be cooked once or multiple times at different temperatures.[49] [50] [51] From 1813 on, recipes for deep-fried cut potatoes occur in popular cookbooks.[52] By the late 1850s, at least one cookbook refers to "French Fried Potatoes".[53]

The first commercially available chips in the UK were sold by Mrs 'Granny' Duce in one of the West Riding towns in 1854.[54] A blue plaque in Oldham marks the origin of the fish-and-chip shop, and thus the start of the fast food industry in Britain.[55] In Scotland, chips were first sold in Dundee: "in the 1870s, that glory of British gastronomy – the chip – was first sold by Belgian immigrant Edward De Gernier in the city's Greenmarket".[56] In Ireland the first chip shop was "opened by Giuseppe Cervi", an Italian immigrant, "who arrived there in the 1880s".[57] It was estimated in 2011 that in the UK, 80% of households bought frozen chips each year.[58] Although chips were a popular dish in most Commonwealth countries, the "thin style" french fries have been popularised worldwide in large part by the large American fast food chains such as McDonald's and Burger King.[59]

United States

In the United States, the J. R. Simplot Company is credited with successfully commercialising french fries in frozen form during the 1940s. Subsequently, in 1967, Ray Kroc of McDonald's contracted the Simplot company to supply them with frozen fries, replacing fresh-cut potatoes. In 2004, 29% of the United States' potato crop was used to make frozen fries; 90% consumed by the food services sector and 10% by retail.[60] The United States supplies China with most of their french fries, as 70% of China's french fries are imported.[61] [62] Pre-made french fries have been available for home cooking since the 1960s, having been pre-fried (or sometimes baked), frozen and placed in a sealed plastic bag.[63] Some fast-food chains dip the fries in a sugar solution or a starch batter, to alter the appearance or texture.[64] French fries are one of the most popular dishes in the United States, commonly being served as a side dish to main dishes and in fast food restaurants. The average American eats around 30lb of french fries a year.[65]

New Brunswick

The town of Florenceville-Bristol, New Brunswick in Canada, headquarters of McCain Foods, calls itself "the French fry capital of the world" and also hosts a museum about potatoes called Potato World.[66] McCain Foods is the world's largest manufacturer of frozen french fries and other potato specialities.[67]

Québec

French fries are the main ingredient in the Québécois dish known as poutine, a dish consisting of fried potatoes covered with cheese curds and brown gravy. Poutine has a growing number of variations, but it is generally considered to have been developed in rural Québec sometime in the 1950s, although precisely where in the province it first appeared is a matter of contention.[68] [69] [70] Canada is also responsible for providing 22% of China's french fries.[71]

Spain

In Spain, fried potatoes are called patatas fritas or papas fritas. Another common form, involving larger irregular cuts, is patatas bravas. The potatoes are cut into big chunks, partially boiled and then fried. They are usually seasoned with a spicy tomato sauce.[72] Fries are a common side dish in Latin American cuisine or part of larger preparations such as the salchipapas in Peru or chorrillana in Chile.[73] [74]

South Africa

Whilst eating 'regular' crispy french fries is common in South Africa, a regional favourite, particularly in Cape Town, is a soft soggy version doused in white vinegar called "slap-chips" (pronounced "slup-chips" in English or "slaptjips" in Afrikaans).[75] [76] [77] These chips are typically thicker and fried at a lower temperature for a longer period of time than regular french fries. Slap-chips are an important component of a Gatsby sandwich, also a common Cape Town delicacy. Slap-chips are also commonly served with deep fried fish which are also served with the same white vinegar.

Japan

is a standard fast-food side dish in Japan.[78] Inspired by Japanese cuisine, okonomiyaki fries are served with a topping of unagi sauce, mayonnaise, katsuobushi, nori seasoning (furikake) and stir-fried cabbage.[79]

Variants

French fries come in multiple variations and toppings. Some examples include:

Accompaniments

See main article: List of accompaniments to french fries. Fries tend to be served with a variety of accompaniments, such as salt and vinegar (malt, balsamic or white), pepper, Cajun seasoning, grated cheese, melted cheese, mushy peas, heated curry sauce, curry ketchup, hot sauce, relish, mustard, mayonnaise, bearnaise sauce, tartar sauce, chili, tzatziki, feta cheese, garlic sauce, fry sauce, butter, sour cream, ranch dressing, barbecue sauce, gravy, honey, aioli, brown sauce, ketchup, lemon juice, piccalilli, pickled cucumber, pickled gherkins, pickled onions or pickled eggs.[95] In Australia, a popular flavouring added to chips is chicken salt.

Nutrition

French fries primarily contain carbohydrates (mostly in the form of starch) and protein from the potato, and fat absorbed during the deep-frying process. Salt, which contains sodium, is almost always applied as a surface seasoning. For example, a large serving of french fries at McDonald's in the United States is 154 grams and includes 350 mg of sodium. The 510 calories come from 66 g of carbohydrates, 24 g of fat and 7 g of protein.[96]

A number of experts have criticised french fries for being very unhealthy. According to Jonathan Bonnet in a Time magazine article, "fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud" because they "involve frying, salting, and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato: the skin, where many of the nutrients and fiber are found."[97] Kristin Kirkpatrick calls french fries "an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat, and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all." David Katz states that "French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often used as vehicles for things like sugar-laced ketchup and fatty mayo." Eric Morrissette, spokesperson for Health Canada, states that people should limit their intake of french fries, but eating them occasionally is not likely to be a health concern.

Frying french fries in beef tallow, lard, or other animal fats adds saturated fat to them. Replacing animal fats with tropical vegetable oils, such as palm oil, simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. For many years partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were used as a means of avoiding cholesterol and reducing saturated fatty acid content, but in time the trans fat content of these oils was perceived as contributing to cardiovascular disease.[98] Starting in 2008, many restaurant chains and manufacturers of pre-cooked frozen french fries for home reheating phased out trans-fat–containing vegetable oils.[99] [100]

French fries contain some of the highest levels of acrylamides of any foodstuff, and experts have raised concerns about the effects of acrylamides on human health.[101] [102] According to the American Cancer Society, it is not clear whether acrylamide consumption affects people's risk of getting cancer. A meta-analysis indicated that dietary acrylamide is not related to the risk of most common cancers, but could not exclude a modest association for kidney, endometrial or ovarian cancers. A lower-fat method for producing a french-fry–like product is to coat "frenched" or wedge potatoes in oil and spices/flavouring before baking them. The temperature will be lower compared to deep frying, which reduces acrylamide formation.[103]

In April 2023, researchers from China suggested a possible link between the consumption of fried food and mental health problems. According to the study, those who frequently consume fried food, especially potatoes, have an increased risk of depression and anxiety, by 7% and 12% respectively, compared to those who do not. The connection was particularly prominent among younger males. However, the causal relationship is not conclusive. The results are still preliminary, and the researchers are uncertain whether consuming fried foods causes mental health problems or individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression tend to opt for fried foods.[104]

Legal issues

In June 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont, Texas, classified batter-coated french fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act. This was primarily for trade reasons; french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a processed food.[105] [106] This classification, referred to as the "French fry rule", was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit case Fleming Companies, Inc. v. USDA.[107] [108]

Environmental impact

A 2022 study estimated the environmental impact of 57,000 food products in the UK and Ireland, finding that French fries have a lower impact on the environment than many other foods.[109]

See also

Bibliography

Notes and References

  1. Web site: chip: definition of chip in Oxford dictionary (British English) . https://web.archive.org/web/20130513050628/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/chip?q=chips . dead . 13 May 2013 . Oxforddictionaries.com . 12 September 2013 . 16 September 2013.
  2. [Indian English]
  3. Taihua Mu, Hongnan Sun, Xingli Liu, Potato Staple Food Processing Technology, p. 14, Springer, 2016 .
  4. Web site: Chunky oven chips . BBC . BBC Good Food . 7 March 2016 . 21 August 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190821062608/https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/2515/chunky-oven-chips . live .
  5. Web site: Amber. Fariha. 17 August 2021. Top tips for making the perfect fries. 17 August 2021. The Daily Star. en. 17 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210817091453/https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/food-recipes/news/top-tips-making-the-perfect-fries-2154141. live.
  6. 1 November 2002. Vacuum frying of potato chips. Journal of Food Engineering. 55. 2. 181–191. 10.1016/S0260-8774(02)00062-6. 0260-8774. Garayo. Jagoba. Moreira. Rosana . 10.1.1.459.6522.
  7. Book: Saint-Ange, Evelyn . La Bonne Cuisine de Madame E. Saint-Ange: The Essential Companion for Authentic French Cooking. Larousse, translation Ten Speed Press . 2005. 978-1-58008-605-9. 553. 1927.
  8. [Fannie Farmer]
  9. News: Blumenthal. Heston. How to cook perfect spuds. 12 October 2012. The Age. 17 April 2012. 2 September 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140902042322/http://www.theage.com.au/lifestyle/cuisine/how-to-cook-perfect-spuds-20120417-1x4fp.html. live.
  10. Book: Bocuse, Paul. Paul Bocuse

    . La Cuisine du marché. fr. Flammarion. Paris. 10 December 1998. 978-2-08-202518-8. Paul Bocuse.

  11. Web site: The Making of French Fries. thespruce.com. 8 December 2017. 10 December 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171210124315/https://www.thespruce.com/how-do-restaurants-make-fries-crispy-995934. live.
  12. Web site: Russet Burbank. idahopotato.com. 9 January 2018. 6 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201106070024/https://idahopotato.com/dr-potato/french-fried-potatoes. live.
  13. Book: Kirkpatrick, Mary E. . French-frying Quality of Potatoes: As Influenced by Cooking Methods, Storage Conditions, and Specific Gravity of Tubers . 1956 . U.S. Department of Agriculture . Technical Bulletin . 1142 . 3 . en.
  14. Web site: A third of U.S.-grown potatoes become frozen french fries used mostly by food service . 15 May 2022 . Ers.usda.gov . en . Typically, about one-tenth of frozen french fries are sold in supermarkets and other retail outlets. . 17 June 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220617234706/https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/?chartId=99117 . live .
  15. [Eric Schlosser|Schlosser, Eric]
  16. News: Grace. Francie. 5 June 2002. McDonald's Settles Beef Over Fries. CBS News. dead. 4 May 2011. https://archive.today/20120729020325/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/06/05/national/main511109.shtml. 29 July 2012.
  17. News: Hesser . Amanda . 5 May 1999 . Deep Secrets: Making the Perfect Fry; The potato of the moment is often a soggy disappointment. Time to take things into your own hands. . en-US . F1 . The New York Times . 9 April 2022 . 0362-4331 . Amanda Hesser . 9 April 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220409194144/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/05/dining/deep-secrets-making-perfect-fry-potato-moment-often-soggy-disappointment-time.html . live .
  18. Book: Steingarten, Jeffrey . Jeffrey Steingarten

    . The Man Who Ate Everything . 8 June 2011 . Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group . 978-0-307-79782-7 . 401–416 . en. Jeffrey Steingarten.

  19. Web site: Science of making perfect fries. Mal. Julie. 26 October 2019. Food Crumbles. 11 December 2019. 18 December 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201218190142/https://foodcrumbles.com/science-making-perfect-fries/. live.
  20. Web site: Ultimate Guide to Crispy French Fries. Kaushik. Nitisha. 11 July 2019. The Countertop Cook. 11 December 2019. 6 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201106142807/https://thecountertopcook.com/frenchfriesscience/. live.
  21. Web site: 5 September 2018. Chips, fries or crisps? Netizens debate over names given to different types of potato chips. 17 August 2021. The Indian Express. en. 17 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210817092123/https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-globally/chips-fries-or-crisps-netizens-are-debating-over-names-given-to-different-kinds-of-potato-chips-5341554/. live.
  22. Web site: Ebeling. Charles. 31 October 2005. French fried: From Monticello to the Moon, A Social, Political and Cultural Appreciation of the French Fry. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20070203071633/http://www.chilit.org/Papers%20by%20author/Ebeling%20--%20French%20Fried.htm. 3 February 2007. 12 January 2007. The Chicago Literary Club.
  23. The Journal of Popular Culture. 32. part 1. 51–58. Fishwick. Marshall W. The Savant as Gourmet. 10.1111/j.0022-3840.1998.3201_51.x. 1998 . 0022-3840 .
  24. http://oed.com/view/Entry/74478?redirectedFrom=french%20fried%20potatoes Home: Oxford English Dictionary
  25. The New York Times Magazine. 7 April 1935. SM18. Mackenzie. Catherine. Food the City Likes Best. the chef at the Rainbow Room launches into a description of his special steak, its French-fried onion rings, its button mushrooms. 15 April 2007. 11 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110811065344/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4081FF83B59107A93C5A9178FD85F418385F9. live.
  26. Book: Rorer , Sarah Tyson . Sarah Tyson Rorer. Mrs. Rorer's New Cook Book. Arnold & Company. Philadelphia. 211. French Fried Chicken. Page 211. http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/coldfusion/display.cfm?ID=rore&PageNum=259. 12 April 2007. c. 1902. 5 May 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110505005151/http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_54.cfm. dead.
  27. Book: McDonald, George. Frommer's Belgium, Holland & Luxembourg. Wiley Publishing. 2007. 978-0-470-06859-5. 485.
  28. Google ngrams for "French fried potatoes" and "French fries" in the US and UK corpora https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=%28French+fried+potatoes%2BFrench+fries%29%3Aeng_us_2019%2C%28French+fried+potatoes%2BFrench+fries%29%3Aeng_gb_2019&year_start=1880&year_end=1960&corpus=26&smoothing=0&direct_url=t1%3B%2C%28%28French%20fried%20potatoes%20%2B%20French%20fries%29%3Aeng_us_2019%29%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2C%28%28French%20fried%20potatoes%20%2B%20French%20fries%29%3Aeng_gb_2019%29%3B%2Cc0
  29. News: Anonymous . Lunch [classified ad] ]. 2 April 2024 . Savannah Morning News . 11 April 1886.
  30. Handy, Mrs. Moses P. "Kitchen Economy in France", Good Housekeeping, Volumes 28–29 159 Vol XXIX No 1 July 1899 Whole No 249. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
  31. Web site: Diario Crónica . Este 20 de agosto se celebra el Día Mundial de las Papas Fritas . “enviaban las papas fritas y guisadas” . August 20, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240305233028/https://www.cronica.com.ar/info-general/Este-20-de-agosto-se-celebra-el-Dia-Mundial-de-las-Papas-Fritas-20200820-0046.html . Mar 5, 2024.
  32. Web site: Rupp. Rebecca. 8 January 2015. Are French Fries Truly French?. dead. 26 October 2021. Culture. en. 18 January 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220118212851/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/are-french-fries-truly-french.
  33. Book: Ilegems, Paul. De Frietkotcultuur. Loempia. 1993. 978-90-6771-325-2. nl.
  34. News: Swalec. Andrea. 28 July 2010. In Belgium, frites aren't small potatoes. en. Reuters. 26 October 2021. 3 March 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220303052447/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-food-fries-idUSTRE66R1JI20100728. live.
  35. Web site: Belgium - A Paradise For Fries. Without A Doubt! But Fries Come From Somewhere Else. . Focus on Belgium . Federal Public Service Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation of Belgium . May 8, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240131021712/https://focusonbelgium.be/en/facts/belgium-paradise-fries-without-doubt-fries-come-somewhere-else . Jan 31, 2024.
  36. Book: Schehr. Lawrence R.. French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Weiss. Allen S.. Routledge. 2001. 978-0415936286. Abingdon. 158.
  37. Web site: Histoire de la pomme de terre frite. Histoiredelafrite.com. 8 June 2022. 29 April 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220429204217/https://www.histoiredelafrite.com/. live.
  38. Web site: Non, les frites ne sont pas belges. 1 August 2018. Lefigaro.fr. 8 June 2022. 14 July 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220714192432/https://www.lefigaro.fr/langue-francaise/actu-des-mots/2018/08/01/37002-20180801ARTFIG00017-non-les-frites-ne-sont-pas-belges.php. live.
  39. Web site: Les frites sont-elles belges ou françaises ? Voici enfin la réponse !. Ladepeche.fr. 8 June 2022. 16 April 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220416093523/https://www.ladepeche.fr/2021/10/18/les-frites-sont-elles-belges-ou-francaises-voici-enfin-la-reponse-9861237.php. live.
  40. Hugues Henry (16 August 2001) Web site: La Frite est-elle belge?. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130524003848/http://www.frites.be/v4/index.cfm?context=article&ContentID=354. 24 May 2013. 3 March 2012. fr. . Frites.be. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  41. Book: Beaufils, Thomas . Les Belges . le Cavalier bleu . 2004 . 2-84670-072-9 . Paris . 86 . FR . 491677873.
  42. Leclercq, Pierre (2 February 2010). La véritable histoire de la pomme de terre frite, Musee-gourmandise.be, mentioning the work of Fernand Pirotte on the history of the potato
  43. Book: Schehr. Lawrence R.. French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Weiss. Allen S. . Routledge . 2001 . 978-0415936286 . Abingdon . 158–159.
  44. See this map indicating where patat/friet/frieten is used in the Low Countries
  45. News: 2 January 2013. La frite est-elle Belge ou Française ?. fr. Le Monde. 3 February 2014. 15 February 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140215144331/http://www.lemonde.fr/style/article/2013/01/02/la-frite-est-elle-belge-ou-francaise_1811949_1575563.html. live.
  46. Book: Le Moyne Des Essarts, Nicolas-Toussaint. Causes célebres curieuses et interessantes, de toutes les cours ..., Volume 5, p. 41 and P. 159. 1775. Nicolas-Toussaint Des Essarts. 16 November 2014.
  47. https://archive.today/20120906222727/http://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/ada/runde_1/f06/ "Erste Runde – Pommes frites"
  48. Web site: Currywurst Traditional Sausage Dish From Berlin TasteAtlas . 2024-03-05 . www.tasteatlas.com.
  49. Alan Davidson, The Oxford Companion to Food, p. 180, Oxford University Press, 2014 .
  50. Brian Yarvin, The Ploughman's Lunch and the Miser's Feast, p. 83, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012 .
  51. Web site: Mcalpine. Fraser. Fries or chips? What is the Difference Between French Fries and British Chips?. 16 July 2020. BBC America. 12 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201112000500/https://www.bbcamerica.com/anglophenia/2015/07/what-is-the-difference-between-french-fries-and-british-chips. live.
  52. Ude, Louis (1822) The French Cook. J. Ebers
  53. Book: Warren, Eliza. The Economical Cookery Book for Housewives, Cooks, and Maids-Of-All-Work, With Hints to the Mistress and Servant. c. 1859. Piper, Stephenson, and Spence. London. 88. 27869877. French Fried Potatoes.
  54. Chaloner, W. H.; Henderson, W. O. (1990). Industry and Innovation: Selected Essays. Taylor & Francis .
  55. Web site: Blue Plaques. 9 May 2021. Oldham.gov.uk. en. John Lees – originator of fish and chips. Market Hall, Albion Street, Oldham..
  56. Web site: Dundee Fact File. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20070408055244/http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/departments/fact.htm. 8 April 2007. 20 March 2007. Dundee City Council.
  57. Web site: 14 March 2017. A postcard, Giuseppe Cervi and the story of the Dublin chipper.. 15 March 2017. Come Here To Me!. 1 June 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190601193822/https://comeheretome.com/2017/03/14/a-postcard-giuseppe-cervi-and-the-story-of-the-dublin-chipper/. live.
  58. Web site: Top Chip Facts. bot: unknown. https://web.archive.org/web/20110211034642/http://www.lovechips.co.uk/chip-facts/. 11 February 2011. 11 February 2011. . Lovechips.co.uk. 27 February 2011
  59. Web site: Popularization. 21 April 2011 . 3 January 2018. today.com. 30 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201030090642/https://www.today.com/food/how-time-fries-have-potatoes-outlived-their-potential-1C9005243. live.
  60. Web site: Frozen Potato Fries Situation and Outlook. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20131215014400/http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/Hort_Circular/2001/01-01/froznpot.htm. 15 December 2013. 12 September 2012.
  61. Web site: China's US importation. 7 January 2018. Forbes. 8 June 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130608100706/http://www.forbes.com/2006/10/12/china-agriculture-mcdonalds-biz_cx_jc_1012potato.html#52735f7352b8. live.
  62. Web site: 5 October 2015. Potato Imports to China Report. Potatoepro.com. 7 January 2018. 6 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201106073141/https://www.potatopro.com/news/2015/potatoes-and-potato-products-china-2015-gain-report. live.
  63. Web site: Pre-Made Fries. 3 January 2018. historyoffastfood.com. 23 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201123223032/http://www.historyoffastfood.com/fast-food-types/french-fries-history-and-facts/. live.
  64. 25 February 2001. The Trouble with Fries. The New Yorker. en-US. 17 August 2021. 29 July 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210729000320/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/03/05/the-trouble-with-fries. live.
  65. Web site: 22 November 2016. Amount of French Fries. 4 January 2018. foxnews.com. 25 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201125154949/https://www.foxnews.com/food-drink/2014/07/18/things-didn-t-know-about-french-fries.html. live.
  66. https://web.archive.org/web/20141207110058/http://thechronicleherald.ca/travel/1237742-nb-museum-celebrates-the-humble-spud N.B. museum celebrates the humble spud | The Chronicle Herald
  67. News: Stephenson. Amanda. 14 June 2021. French fry giant McCain Foods' environmental promises could change potato farming in Alberta. Calgary Herald. 25 October 2021. 25 October 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211025234338/https://calgaryherald.com/business/local-business/french-fry-giant-mccain-foods-environmental-promises-could-change-potato-farming-in-ab. live.
  68. News: Semenak. Susan. 6 February 2015. Backstage at La Banquise – because it's always poutine week there. Montreal Gazette. 27 January 2019. 1 December 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201201104816/https://montrealgazette.com/life/food/backstage-at-la-banquise. live.
  69. News: Sekules. Kate. 23 May 2007. A Staple From Quebec, Embarrassing but Adored. The New York Times. 19 May 2008. 14 April 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220414190418/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/dining/23pout.html?ex=1337572800&en=42c5e67c003989af&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. live. Article on Poutine coming to New York City
  70. Kane. Marion. 8 November 2008. The war of the curds. The Star. 16 December 2001. 9 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201109023558/https://www.thestar.com/life/food_wine/2008/11/08/the_war_of_the_curds.html. live.
  71. Web site: Canada's Imports. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20180108174908/http://www.frozenfoodsbiz.com/potatoes/12/56-industry-news/70-potatoes/2437-as-french-fry-production-rises-in-china-imports-may-dip. 8 January 2018. 7 January 2018. frozenfoodsbiz.com.
  72. Web site: Patatas Bravas. 12 November 2017. spanish-food.org. 24 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201124073035/https://www.spanish-food.org/spanish-tapas-patatas-bravas.html. live.
  73. News: Gregory. Vanessa. 5 November 2009. Tastes of Newly Fashionable Valparaíso, Chile. en-US. The New York Times. 17 August 2021. 0362-4331. 25 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210225034745/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/travel/08journeys.html. live.
  74. News: Mishan. Ligaya. 18 July 2019. Peruvian, Fortifying and Frank, at Warique in Queens. en-US. The New York Times. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/18/dining/warique-review-queens.html . 2 January 2022 . limited . live. 17 August 2021. 0362-4331.
  75. Web site: 19 February 2018. Slap Chips - a Cape Town favourite. 28 August 2019. Capetownetc.com. 6 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201106114909/https://www.capetownetc.com/cape-town/slap-chips/. live.
  76. Web site: 1 March 2016. Top tips for making the perfect fries. 28 August 2019. Food24. en. 13 December 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191213225909/https://www.food24.com/News-and-Guides/Food-in-Focus/Top-tips-for-the-perfect-fries-20120530. live.
  77. Web site: Dall. Nick. 8 September 2017. Why South Africans Go Mad for These Soggy Fries. 28 August 2019. OZY. en. 28 August 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190828112120/https://www.ozy.com/good-sht/the-secret-to-south-africas-favorite-french-fries/80641. live.
  78. Web site: 2 September 2012. The best-tasting French fries in Japan are…. Japan Today. 6 June 2021. 6 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210606010832/https://japantoday.com/category/features/food/the-best-tasting-french-fries-in-japan-are. live.
  79. Web site: Okonomiyaki fries. Potatoesgoodness.com. 6 June 2021. 6 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210606024318/https://www.potatogoodness.com/recipes/okonomiyaki-fries/. live.
  80. News: Stop at Picante and say, 'Fill 'er up!' . Allen Borgen . San Bernardino Sun . 25 December 2008 . 22 December 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120229152052/http://www.sbsun.com/living/ci_11309839 . 29 February 2012 .
    Book: Maria Desiderata Montana. Food Lovers' Guide to® San Diego: The Best Restaurants, Markets & Local Culinary Offerings. 18 September 2012. Rowman & Littlefield. 978-0-7627-8904-7. 69.
  81. News: 5 to Try: Cheese fries. Commercial Appeal. 3 April 2018. 13 February 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200213200508/https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/entertainment/dining/reviews/2018/03/22/5-try-cheese-fries/437993002/. live.
  82. News: Who Invented Chili Cheese Fries - Vision Launch. Zorn. Marc. 18 August 2014. Vision Launch. 7 July 2017. en-US. 24 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201124042057/https://visionlaunch.com/who-invented-chili-cheese-fries/. live.
  83. Web site: Walker. Kylie. 12 February 2019. Have you discovered the glory of curry chips?. live. 17 August 2021. SBS. en. 17 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210817094004/https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2019/02/12/have-you-discovered-glory-curry-chips.
  84. Kirwin, Ellen: Liverpool's best dirty fries, cheesy chips and downright filthy food, Liverpool Echo 8 March 2017. Accessed on 13 May 2021.
  85. http://ftw.usatoday.com/2016/06/the-u-s-open-is-selling-a-delicious-sandwich-with-french-fries-on-it The U.S. Open is selling a delicious sandwich with french fries on it | For The Win
  86. News: Kimchi Fries . Thewoksoflife.com . 27 June 2021 . 27 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210627104913/https://thewoksoflife.com/kimchi-fries/ . live .
  87. News: kimchi fries . Brooklynsupper.com . 27 June 2021 . 27 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210627104913/https://brooklynsupper.com/kimchi-fries/ . live .
  88. News: How to Make Kimchi Fries . Tasteofhome.com . 27 June 2021 . 27 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210627104913/https://www.tasteofhome.com/article/how-to-make-kimchi-fries/ . live .
  89. Web site: Mitchell . Simone . Frozen microwave chips: Answer to our prayers or culinary nightmare? . News.com.au . 19 March 2022 . 8 March 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210308175952/https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/food/eat/frozen-microwave-chips-answer-to-our-prayers-or-culinary-nightmare/news-story/285ca5caceccdf8377cfa71fea1f8c37 . live .
  90. News: Oven Fries Recipe. 17 August 2021. The New York Times. Cooking. 17 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210817094001/https://cooking.nytimes.com/recipes/1013044-oven-fries. live.
  91. Web site: 19 May 2021. 'Protect our poutine': Quebec dairy group looks to give gooey dish official status. 17 August 2021. Saanich News. en-US. 17 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210817094004/https://www.saanichnews.com/news/protect-our-poutine-quebec-dairy-group-looks-to-give-gooey-dish-official-status/. live.
  92. News: Severson. Kim. 25 November 2010. Sweet Potatoes Step Out From Under Marshmallows. en-US. The New York Times. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/25/us/25sweet.html . 2 January 2022 . limited . live. 17 August 2021. 0362-4331.
  93. Book: Lingle, B. . Fries!: An Illustrated Guide to the World's Favorite Food . Chronicle Books . 2016 . 978-1-61689-504-4 . 1 July 2017 . 50–53.
  94. Web site: Dubecki. Larissa. 26 July 2016. The quest for the 'Perfect Chip'. 17 August 2021. Good Food. en-au. 17 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210817094004/https://www.goodfood.com.au/recipes/how-to/the-perfect-chip-20160710-gq2siu. live.
  95. http://www.unlikelywords.com/2011/11/07/list-of-accompaniments-to-french-fries/ List of accompaniments to french fries – Unlikely Words – A blog of Boston, Providence, and the world
  96. Web site: McDonald's Nutrition Facts for Popular Menu Items. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20111021001852/http://nutrition.mcdonalds.com/getnutrition/nutritionfacts.pdf. 21 October 2011. nutrition.mcdonalds.com.
  97. http://time.com/3896083/french-fries-potato/ "Fried Potatoes and Acrylamide: Are French Fries Bad For You?"
  98. Web site: Health Risks. Forbes. 4 January 2018. 17 December 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201217134235/https://www.forbes.com/sites/alicegwalton/2017/06/14/the-unfortunate-health-risks-of-french-fries/#7fa4c34c1bdf. live.
  99. News: McDonalds Trans fats. 23 May 2008. Reuters. 4 January 2018. 6 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201106044557/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mcdonalds-transfat-idUSN2234307520080523. live.
  100. Web site: Burger King Trans fats. NBC News. 4 January 2018. 15 August 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200815134025/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/26994314/ns/health-diet_and_nutrition/t/burger-king-eliminates-trans-fats/. dead.
  101. Web site: Acrylamide . 1 October 2013 . . 15 September 2014 . 20 November 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161120194243/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/othercarcinogens/athome/acrylamide . live .
  102. Pelucchi C, Bosetti C, Galeone C, La Vecchia C . Dietary acrylamide and cancer risk: an updated meta-analysis . Int. J. Cancer . 136 . 12 . 2912–22 . 2015 . 25403648 . 10.1002/ijc.29339 . 26689375 . free .
  103. Web site: Eat Fries—Guilt-Free!. Prevention. 3 November 2011. 19 April 2016. 3 January 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180103201957/https://www.prevention.com/food/healthy-eating-tips/healthy-french-fries-cutting-fast-food-calories. live.
  104. News: New research suggests that French fries may be linked to depression . CNN . 25 April 2023 . 25 April 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230425003915/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/04/24/health/fried-food-anxiety-depression-risk-wellness/index.html . live .
  105. Web site: 12 January 2009. Country of Origin Labelling: Frequently Asked Questions. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20090203003724/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5074846. 3 February 2009. Agricultural Marketing Service.
  106. News: Batter-Coated Frozen French Fries Called Fresh Vegetable. Ira. Dreyfuss. 16 June 2004. The Washington Post. 28 August 2017. 21 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170121101746/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A44632-2004Jun15.html. live.
  107. Web site: Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act - vol63_at_958.pdf . 16 September 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20131215013829/http://www.dm.usda.gov/oaljdecisions/vol63/vol63_at_958.pdf . 15 December 2013 .
  108. Web site: 04-40802: Fleming Companies v. Dept of Agriculture :: Fifth Circuit :: US Court of Appeals Cases :: Justia . Law.justia.com . 16 September 2013 . 10 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131210031124/http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca5/04-40802/04-40802.0.wpd-2011-02-25.html . live .
  109. Clark . Michael . Springmann . Marco . Rayner . Mike . Scarborough . Peter . Hill . Jason . Tilman . David . Macdiarmid . Jennie I. . Fanzo . Jessica . Bandy . Lauren . Harrington . Richard A. . Estimating the environmental impacts of 57,000 food products . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 16 August 2022 . 119 . 33 . e2120584119 . 10.1073/pnas.2120584119 . free . 35939701 . 9388151 . 2022PNAS..11920584C . en . 0027-8424 . 1091-6490.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "French fries".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.