Freedom in the World explained

Freedom in the World is a yearly survey and report by the U.S.-based non-governmental organization Freedom House that measures the degree of civil liberties and political rights in every nation and significant related and disputed territories around the world.[1]

Origin and use

Freedom in the World was launched in 1973 by Raymond Gastil. It produces annual scores representing the levels of political rights and civil liberties in each state and territory, on a scale from 1 (most free) to 7 (least free). Depending on the ratings, the nations are then classified as "Free", "Partly Free", or "Not Free". The report is often used by researchers in order to measure democracy and correlates highly with several other measures of democracy such as the Polity data series.[2]

The Freedom House rankings are widely reported in the media and used as sources by political researchers. Their construction and use has been evaluated by critics and supporters.

Country rankings

The rankings are from the Freedom in the World 2019,[3] 2020,[4] 2021,[5] and 2022 surveys, each report covering the previous year. The average of each pair of ratings on political rights and civil liberties determines the overall status of "Free" (1.0–2.5), "Partly Free" (3.0–5.0), or "Not Free" (5.5–7.0).[6]

An asterisk (*) indicates countries which are "electoral democracies". To qualify as an "electoral democracy", a state must have satisfied the following criteria:

  1. A competitive, multiparty political system;
  2. Adult suffrage for all citizens without criminal convictions (some states may further punish and subjugate people with criminal convictions by disenfranchising them from the democratic process);
  3. Regularly contested elections conducted in conditions of ballot secrecy, reasonable ballot security, and the absence of massive voter fraud that yields results that are unrepresentative of the public will; and
  4. Significant public access of major political parties to the electorate through the media and through generally open political campaigning.

An electoral democracy must have a score of 7 or more out of 12 in political rights subcategory A (Electoral Progress), an overall aggregate score of 20 in their political rights rating and an overall aggregate score of 30 in their civil liberties rating.[7]

Freedom House's term "electoral democracy" differs from "liberal democracy" in that the latter also implies the presence of a substantial array of civil liberties. In the survey, all Free countries qualify as both electoral and liberal democracies. By contrast, some Partly Free countries qualify as electoral, but not liberal, democracies.[6]

World

* indicates "Civil liberties in country or territory" or "Human rights in country or territory" links.

PR = political rights, CL = civil liberties

2024

Country (2024)
TotalFree
Afghanistan615Not free
Albania682840Partly free
Algeria321022Not free
Andorra933855Free
Angola281018Not free
Antigua and Barbuda853352Free
Argentina853650Free
Armenia542331Partly free
Australia953857Free
Austria933756Free
Azerbaijan707Not free
Bahamas913853Free
Bahrain12210Not free
Bangladesh401525Partly free
Barbados943757Free
Belarus826Not free
Belgium963957Free
Belize873453Free
Benin611942Partly free
Bhutan633033Partly free
Bolivia662739Partly free
Bosnia and Herzegovina511734Partly free
Botswana722844Free
Brazil723042Free
Brunei28721Not free
Bulgaria783246Free
Burkina Faso27324Not free
Burundi14410Not free
Cape Verde923854Free
Cambodia23419Not free
Cameroon1569Not free
Canada973958Free
Central African Republic514Not free
Chad15114Not free
Chile943856Free
China9-211Not free
Colombia703139Free
Comoros421626Partly free
Costa Rica913853Free
Croatia833449Free
Cuba12111Not free
Cyprus923854Free
Czech Republic943658Free
Democratic Republic of the Congo19415Not free
Denmark974057Free
Djibouti24519Not free
Dominica933756Free
Dominican Republic682741Partly free
East Timor723339Free
Ecuador672938Partly free
Egypt18612Not free
El Salvador532132Partly free
Equatorial Guinea505Not free
Eritrea312Not free
Estonia953857Free
Eswatini17116Not free
Ethiopia201010Not free
Fiji662739Partly free
Finland1004060Free
France893851Free
Gabon20218Not free
Gambia502228Partly free
Georgia582236Partly free
Germany933954Free
Ghana803545Free
Greece853550Free
Grenada893752Free
Guatemala461729Partly free
Guinea30723Not free
Guinea-Bissau431726Partly free
Guyana733043Partly free
Haiti301119Not free
Honduras482226Partly free
Hungary652441Partly free
Iceland943757Free
India663333Partly free
Indonesia572928Partly free
Iran1147Not free
Iraq301614Not free
Ireland973958Free
Israel743440Free
Italy903654Free
Ivory Coast491930Partly free
Jamaica803347Free
Japan964056Free
Jordan331122Not free
Kazakhstan23518Not free
Kenya522230Partly free
Kiribati903753Free
Kosovo602832Partly free
Kuwait381424Partly free
Kyrgyzstan27423Not free
Laos13211Not free
Latvia883751Free
Lebanon421329Partly free
Lesotho663036Free
Liberia643034Partly free
Libya918Not free
Liechtenstein903353Free
Lithuania893851Free
Luxembourg973859Free
Madagascar582434Partly free
Malawi662937Partly free
Malaysia532231Partly free
Maldives442123Partly free
Mali26620Not free
Malta873552Free
Marshall Islands933855Free
Mauritania391524Partly free
Mauritius853550Free
Mexico602733Partly free
Micronesia923755Free
Moldova612635Partly free
Monaco822557Free
Mongolia843648Free
Montenegro692742Partly free
Morocco371324Partly free
Mozambique441430Partly free
Myanmar808Not free
Namibia773146Free
Nauru773443Free
Nepal622834Partly free
Netherlands973958Free
New Zealand994059Free
Nicaragua16412Not free
Niger33627Partly free
Nigeria442024Partly free
North Korea303Not free
North Macedonia672839Partly free
Norway983959Free
Oman24618Not free
Pakistan351421Partly free
Palau923755Free
Panama833548Free
Papua New Guinea612239Partly free
Paraguay632637Partly free
Peru662739Partly free
Philippines582533Partly free
Poland803347Free
Portugal963957Free
Qatar25718Not free
Republic of the Congo17215Not free
Romania833548Free
Russia1349Not free
Rwanda23815Not free
Samoa843252Free
San Marino973958Free
São Tomé and Príncipe843549Free
Saudi Arabia817Not free
Senegal672839Partly free
Serbia571839Partly free
Seychelles793445Free
Sierra Leone602436Partly free
Singapore481929Partly free
Slovakia903753Free
Slovenia963957Free
Solomon Islands752847Free
Somalia826Not free
South Africa793346Free
South Korea833350Free
South Sudan1-34Not free
Spain903753Free
Sri Lanka542233Partly free
Saint Kitts and Nevis893554Free
Saint Lucia923854Free
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines903654Free
Sudan6-39Not free
Suriname793445Free
Sweden994059Free
Switzerland963957Free
Syria1-34Not free
Tajikistan505Not free
Tanzania361224Partly free
Thailand361224Partly free
Togo421527Partly free
Tonga813150Free
Trinidad and Tobago823349Free
Tunisia511635Partly free
Turkey331716Not free
Turkmenistan202Not free
Tuvalu933756Free
Uganda341024Not free
Ukraine492128Partly free
United Arab Emirates18513Not free
United Kingdom913853Free
United States833350Free
Uruguay964056Free
Uzbekistan12210Not free
Vanuatu823250Free
Venezuela15114Not free
Vietnam19415Not free
Yemen1019Not free
Zambia542331Partly free
Zimbabwe271017Not free

Before 2024

CountryElectoral democracy20192020202120222023
FreePtsFreePtsFreePtsFreePtsFreePts
5 6 275 6 275 6 277 7 2
3 3 683 3 673 3 663 3 67
6 5 346 5 346 5 326 5 32
1 1 941 1 941 1 931 1 93
6 5 316 5 326 5 316 5 30
2 2 842 2 852 2 852 2 85
2 2 842 2 852 2 842 2 84
4 4 514 4 534 4 554 4 55
1 1 981 1 971 1 971 1 95
1 1 931 1 931 1 931 1 93
7 6 117 6 107 6 107 6 9
1 1 911 1 911 1 911 1 91
7 6 127 6 117 6 127 6 12
5 5 415 5 395 5 395 5 39
1 1 961 1 951 1 951 1 95
7 6 197 6 197 6 117 7 8
1 1 961 1 961 1 961 1 96
1 2 862 2 862 1 872 1 87
2 2 794 2 664 2 655 3 59
3 4 593 4 592 4 613 4 61
3 3 673 3 633 3 663 3 66
4 4 534 4 534 4 534 4 53
3 2 723 2 723 2 723 2 72
2 2 752 2 752 3 742 3 73
6 5 296 5 286 5 286 5 28
2 2 802 2 802 2 782 2 79
4 3 604 4 564 4 544 4 53
7 6 147 6 137 6 147 6 14
6 5 267 5 257 5 247 5 24
6 6 196 6 186 6 166 6 15
1 1 991 1 981 1 981 1 98
1 1 901 1 921 1 921 1 92
7 7 97 7 107 7 97 7 7
7 6 177 6 177 6 177 6 15
1 1 941 2 901 1 931 1 94
7 6 117 6 107 6 97 6 9
3 3 663 3 663 3 653 3 64
4 4 504 4 445 4 425 4 42
7 6 157 6 187 6 20
7 5 217 5 207 5 20
1 1 911 1 911 1 91
1 2 851 2 851 2 85
7 6 147 6 147 6 13
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
1 1 911 1 911 1 91
1 1 971 1 971 1 97
6 5 267 5 247 5 24
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
3 3 673 3 673 3 67
2 3 702 3 712 3 72
3 3 633 3 653 3 67
6 6 226 6 216 6 18
2 3 672 4 662 4 63
7 7 67 7 67 7 5
7 7 27 7 27 7 2
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
6 6 196 6 246 6 22
7 6 167 5 197 5 19
3 3 613 3 603 3 60
1 1 1001 1 1001 1 100
1 2 901 2 901 2 90
7 5 237 5 227 5 22
4 5 454 4 464 4 46
3 3 633 3 614 3 60
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
1 2 832 2 822 2 82
1 2 871 2 881 2 87
1 2 891 2 891 2 89
4 4 534 4 524 4 52
5 4 435 5 405 5 38
5 4 425 4 465 4 44
2 3 752 3 742 3 73
5 5 415 5 385 5 37
4 4 464 4 454 5 44
3 3 703 3 703 3 69
1 1 941 1 941 1 94
2 3 752 3 712 4 67
2 4 622 4 612 4 59
6 6 186 6 176 6 16
5 6 325 6 315 6 29
1 1 971 1 971 1 97
2 3 782 3 762 3 76
1 1 891 1 891 1 90
4 4 514 4 515 4 44
2 2 782 2 782 2 80
1 1 961 1 961 1 96
5 5 375 5 376 5 34
7 5 227 5 237 5 23
4 4 484 4 484 4 48
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
3 4 543 4 564 4 54
5 5 365 5 365 5 37
5 4 385 4 397 5 28
7 6 147 6 147 6 13
2 2 871 2 891 2 89
5 4 455 4 445 4 43
3 3 633 3 633 3 63
3 3 623 4 603 4 60
7 6 97 6 97 6 9
2 1 902 1 902 1 90
1 1 911 1 911 2 90
1 1 981 1 981 1 97
3 4 563 3 613 4 60
3 3 643 3 623 3 66
4 4 524 4 524 4 51
5 5 354 5 404 5 40
4 4 445 5 416 5 33
2 1 912 1 902 1 90
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
6 5 325 5 345 5 35
1 2 891 2 891 2 87
3 3 633 3 623 4 61
1 1 921 1 921 1 92
3 4 583 4 603 3 61
3 1 823 1 833 1 83
1 2 851 2 841 2 84
4 3 654 3 623 3 63
5 5 395 5 375 5 37
4 4 515 4 455 4 43
5 5 305 6 305 6 28
3 2 752 2 772 2 77
2 2 782 3 772 3 77
3 4 543 4 563 4 56
1 1 991 1 991 1 98
1 1 981 1 971 1 99
6 5 326 5 316 5 30
4 4 494 4 484 4 48
3 5 504 5 474 5 45
7 7 37 7 37 7 3
4 3 593 3 633 3 66
1 1 1001 1 1001 1 100
6 5 236 5 236 5 23
5 5 395 5 385 5 37
1 1 921 1 921 1 92
1 2 841 2 842 2 83
4 3 644 3 624 3 62
3 3 653 3 653 3 65
2 3 732 3 723 3 71
3 3 613 4 593 4 56
2 2 842 2 842 2 82
1 1 961 1 961 1 96
6 5 256 5 256 5 25
2 2 812 2 832 2 83
7 6 207 6 207 6 20
6 6 236 6 226 6 21
1 1 891 1 892 1 89
1 1 921 1 921 1 91
1 1 911 1 911 1 91
2 2 812 2 812 2 81
1 1 951 1 951 1 93
2 2 832 2 842 2 84
7 7 77 7 77 7 7
2 3 723 3 713 3 71
3 3 674 3 664 3 64
3 3 713 3 722 3 77
3 3 653 3 653 3 65
4 4 514 4 504 4 48
1 2 881 2 881 1 90
1 1 941 1 941 1 95
2 2 792 2 792 2 79
7 7 77 7 77 7 7
2 2 792 2 792 2 79
2 2 832 2 832 2 83
7 7 27 7 27 7 2
1 1 941 1 921 1 90
3 4 564 4 564 4 56
7 7 77 6 127 6 17
2 3 772 3 752 2 79
1 1 1001 1 1001 1 100
1 1 961 1 961 1 96
7 7 07 7 07 7 17 7 17 7 1
7 6 97 6 97 6 87 6 87 6 7
4 5 455 5 405 5 345 5 345 5 36
7 5 306 4 327 5 307 5 296 5 30
5 4 435 4 445 4 435 4 425 4 42
2 2 792 2 792 2 792 2 792 2 81
2 2 822 2 822 2 82
2 3 692 3 702 3 71
5 6 315 6 325 6 32
7 7 27 7 27 7 2
1 1 931 1 931 1 93
6 5 366 5 346 5 34
3 4 603 3 623 4 60
7 6 177 6 177 6 17
1 1 931 1 941 1 93
2 1 862 1 862 2 83
1 1 981 1 981 1 98
7 6 97 6 107 6 11
2 2 822 2 822 2 82
7 6 197 6 167 6 14
7 5 207 5 207 6 19
7 6 117 6 117 6 11
4 4 544 4 544 4 52
5 5 315 5 296 5 28

Territories and countries with limited recognition

Territory (2024)
TotalFree
Abkhazia391722Partly free
Crimea2-24Not free
Eastern Donbas2-13Not free
Gaza Strip835Not free
Hong Kong41932Partly free
Indian Kashmir26620Not free
Nagorno-Karabakh-3-30Not free
Northern Cyprus762749Free
Pakistani Kashmir29920Not free
Somaliland431726Partly free
South Ossetia1239Not free
Taiwan943856Free
Tibet0-22Not free
Transnistria17512Not free
West Bank22418Not free
Western Sahara4-37Not free
Country2014201520162017201820202021[8]
FreeFreeFreeFreeFreeFreePtsFreePts
45454545451723Partly401723Partly40
(disputed)4376767676-210Not8-29Not7
Donetsk PR and Luhansk PR (disputed)-16Not5-15Not4
Gaza Strip (Palestine)767676767638Not1138Not11
(China)52525252521639Partly551537Partly52
Indian Kashmir (India)4444444444820Not28720Not27
Azad Kashmir (Pakistan)6565656565919Not28919Not28
22222222223150Free812850Free78
(United States)*121211[9]
45455555451724Partly411824Partly42
767676767628Not1028Not10
11931194
Tibet (China)7777777777-23Not1-23Not1
6666666666913Not22812Not20
West Bank (Palestine)6565657575421Not25421Not25
7777777777-37Not4-37Not4

Former entries

Former entries from Freedom in the World. Most are territories added in the 1978 report for 1977 and received their last coverage in the 2000 report of the same year. Other territories with differing dates are noted below. Their placements are based on their final rankings before ceasing coverage.

Free

Partly Free

Not Free

Trends

Percentage of countries in each category, from the 1973 through 2021 reports:

1973–2021



valign=bottom Year
valign=bottom Free
valign=bottom Partly
Free
valign=bottom Not
Free
valign=bottom Electoral
Democracies
1975 41 (27%) 48 (32%) 63 (41%) —
1980 51 (32%) 54 (33%) 56 (35%) —
1985 53 (32%) 59 (35%) 55 (33%) —
1990 61 (37%) 44 (26%) 62 (37%) 69 (41%)
1995 76 (40%) 61 (32%) 54 (28%) 113 (59%)
2000 85 (44%) 60 (31%) 47 (25%) 120 (63%)
2005 89 (46%) 54 (28%) 49 (26%) 119 (62%)
2010 89 (46%) 58 (30%) 47 (24%) 116 (60%)
2011 87 (45%) 60 (31%) 47 (24%) 115 (59%)
2012 87 (45%) 60 (31%) 48 (25%) 117 (60%)
2013 90 (46%) 58 (30%) 47 (24%) 117 (60%)
2014 88 (45%) 59 (30%) 48 (25%) 122 (63%)
2015 89 (46%) 55 (28%) 51 (26%) 125 (64%)
2016 86 (44%) 59 (30%) 50 (26%) 125 (64%)
2017 87 (45%) 59 (30%) 49 (25%) 123 (63%)
2018 88 (45%) 58 (30%) 49 (25%) 116 (59%)
2019 86 (44%) 59 (30%) 50 (26%) 115 (59%)
2020 83 (43%) 63 (32%) 49 (25%) 115 (59%)
2021 82 (42%) 59 (30%) 54 (28%) 114 (58%)
2022 83 (43%) 56 (29%) 56 (29%) 115 (59%)
2023 84 (43%) 54 (28%) 57 (29%) 110 (56%)
Sources: Country Status and ratings overview 1973–2016,[10] [11] Number and percentages of electoral democracies 1989–2016,[12] Freedom in the World 2018 report covering 2017.[13]

Notes:

Evaluation

There is some debate over the neutrality of Freedom House and the methodology used for the Freedom in the World report, which has been written by Raymond Gastil and his colleagues.[14] The neutrality and biases of human-rights indices have been discussed in several publications by Kenneth A. Bollen.[15] Bollen wrote that "Considered together these criticisms suggest that some nations may have been incorrectly rated on Gastil's measures. However, none of the criticisms have demonstrated a systematic bias in all the ratings. Most of the evidence consists of anecdotal evidence of relatively few cases. Whether there is a systematic or sporadic slant in Gastil's ratings is an open question" (Bollen, 1986, p. 586).[14] The freedom index of Freedom in the World has a very strong and positive (at least an 80%) correlation with three other democracy-indices studied in Mainwaring (2001, p. 53).[16]

Ideological bias or neutrality

In his 1986 study, Bollen discussed reviews of measurements of human rights, including the index reported in Freedom in the World (Bollen, 1986, p. 585). Criticisms of Freedom in the World during the 1980s were discussed by Gastil (1990), who stated that "generally such criticism is based on opinions about Freedom House rather than detailed examination of survey ratings", a conclusion disputed by Giannone.[17] The definition of Freedom in Gastil (1982) and Freedom House (1990) emphasized liberties rather than the exercise of freedom, according to Adam Przeworski, who gave the following example: In the United States, citizens are free to form political parties and to vote, yet even in presidential elections only half of U.S. "citizens" vote; in the U.S., "the same two parties speak in a commercially sponsored unison", wrote .[18]

More recent charges of ideological bias prompted Freedom House to issue this 2010 statement:

Freedom House does not maintain a culture-bound view of freedom. The methodology of the survey is grounded in basic standards of political rights and civil liberties, derived in large measure from relevant portions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These standards apply to all countries and territories, irrespective of geographical location, ethnic or religious composition, or level of economic development.[6]

Mainwaring et alia (2001, p. 52)[16] wrote that Freedom House's index had "two systematic biases: scores for leftist were tainted by political considerations, and changes in scores are sometimes driven by changes in their criteria rather than changes in real conditions." Nonetheless, when evaluated in Latin American countries yearly, Freedom House's index was very strongly and positively correlated with the index of Adam Przeworski and with the index of the authors themselves: They evaluated Pearson's coefficient of linear correlation between their index and Freedom House's index, which was 0.82; among these indices and the two others studied, the correlations were all between 0.80 and 0.86 (Mainwaring et alia, 2001, p. 53).[16]

As previously quoted, Bollen criticized previous studies of Freedom in the World as anecdotal and inconclusive; they raised issues needing further study by scientific methods rather than anecdotes.[14] Bollen studied the question of ideological bias using multivariate statistics. Using their factor-analytic model for human-rights measurements, Bollen and Paxton estimate that Gastil's method produces a bias of -0.38 standard deviations (s.d.) against Marxist–Leninist countries and a larger bias, +0.5 s.d., favoring Christian countries; similar results held for the methodology of Sussman (Bollen and Paxton, 2000, p. 585).[19] In contrast, another method by a critic of Freedom in the World produced a bias for Leftist countries during the 1980s of at least +0.8 s.d., a bias that is "consistent with the general finding that political scientists are more favorable to leftist politics than is the general population" (Bollen and Paxton, p. 585).[19]

Coder bias

Political scientists Andrew T. Little and Anne Meng argued that the data produced by Freedom House and the Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) project relies heavily on subjective, as opposed to objective, measures and thus are tainted by coder bias.[20]

Use and conceptual analysis

Criticisms of the reception and uses of the Freedom in the World report have been noted by Diego Giannone:[21]

Time series

See also: Panel study and Time series. In "Political and ideological aspects in the measurement of democracy: the Freedom House case" (2010) which reviewed changes to the methodology since 1990, Diego Giannone concluded that "because of the changes in methodology over time and the strict interconnection between methodological and political aspects, the FH data do not offer an unbroken and politically neutral time series, such that they should not be used for cross-time analyses even for the development of first hypotheses. The internal consistency of the data series is open to question."[27]

On this topic, the Freedom House website replies that they have "made a number of modest methodological changes to adapt to evolving ideas about political rights and civil liberties. At the same time, the time series data are not revised retroactively, and any changes to the methodology are introduced incrementally in order to ensure the comparability of the ratings from year to year."[6]

See also

References

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: William Ide . January 11, 2000 . Freedom House Report: Asia Sees Some Significant Progress . https://web.archive.org/web/20131204022723/http://www.voanews.com/content/report--asia-sees-some-significant-progress-81235887/165280.html . 4 December 2013 . dead . Voice of America . October 13, 2012 . dmy .
  2. http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/g/g/ggc3/caspertufisPAweb.pdf “Correlation Versus Interchangeability: the Limited Robustness of Empirical Finding on Democracy Using Highly Correlated Data Sets"
  3. Web site: Freedom in the World 2019 . Freedom House . 5 February 2019 . 5 February 2019.
  4. Web site: Freedom in the World 2020 . Freedom House . 4 March 2020 . 4 March 2020.
  5. Web site: Freedom in the World 2021 . Freedom House . 3 March 2021 . 3 March 2021.
  6. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=351&ana_page=363&year=2010 "Freedom in the World 2010: Methodology"
  7. Web site: Methodology: Freedom in the World 2018. 13 January 2018. freedomhouse.org. 17 January 2018. 24 February 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200224132730/https://freedomhouse.org/report/methodology-freedom-world-2018. dead.
  8. Web site: Countries and Territories. 2021-03-05. Freedom House. en.
  9. Puerto Rico *. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/puerto-rico
  10. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Country Status %26 Ratings Overview, 1973-2016.pdf "Country Status and ratings overview"
  11. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world Country and Territory Ratings and Statuses, 1973-2024 (Excel Download)
  12. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Electoral Democracy Numbers, FIW 1989-2016.pdf "Number and percentages of electoral democracies"
  13. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2018 Freedom In the World 2018
  14. Bollen, K.A., "Political Rights and Political Liberties in Nations: An Evaluation of Human Rights Measures, 1950 to 1984", Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 4 (November 1986), pp.567–591. Also in: Jabine, T.B. and Pierre Claude, R. (Eds.), Human Rights and Statistics, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992, pp. 188–215, .
  15. Bollen has held chairs as a Distinguished Professor of Sociology and the Director of the Howard W. Odum Institute for Research in Social Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH). Also serving as an Adjunct Professor of Statistics at UNC-CH, Bollen wrote the leading graduate textbook in structural equation models (SEM), often called LISREL models; SEM modeling allows the summary of a large number of measurements using a small number of meaningful factors. SEM was used by Bollen in the studies reported hereafter.
  16. Mainwaring . S. . Brinks . D. . Pérez-Liñán . A.B. . Classifying Political Regimes in Latin . 10.1007/BF02687584 . Studies in Comparative International Development . 36. 1 . 37–65 . 2001 . 155047996 .
  17. Gastil . R.D. . 10.1007/BF02716904 . The Comparative Survey of Freedom: Experiences and Suggestions . Studies in Comparative International Development . 25 . 1. 25–50 . 1990 . 144099626 .
  18. Adam. Przeworski . Adam Przeworski . Freedom to choose and democracy . 2003 . 19 . 2 . 265–279 . Economics and Philosophy . 10.1017/S0266267103001159 . 10.1.1.570.736 . 38812895 .
  19. Bollen, Kenneth A. and Paxton, Pamela, "Subjective Measures of Liberal Democracy", Comparative Political Studies, vol. 33, no. 1 (February 2000), pp. 58–86
  20. Andrew Little and Anne Meng,“Measuring Democratic Backsliding.“ PS: Political Science & Politics (forthcoming). https://osf.io/n32zk/
  21. Giannone, Diego, "Political and ideological aspects in the measurement of democracy: the Freedom House case", Democratization, vol. 17, no. 1 (February 2010), pp. 68–97.
  22. "Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics." The American Political Science Review 64 (4): 1033–1053.
  23. Giannone (2010), p. 69. Quoting Landman, Tod, and Julia Hausermann, indicators/GovIndicatorsEssex2003.pdf Map-Making and Analysis of the Main International Initiatives on Developing Indicators on Democracy and Good Governance, Final Report, University of Essex – Human Rights Centre, July 2003, 98 pp.
  24. Scoble, Harry and Laurie Wiseberg, Ved Nanda, Ved, James Scarritt, and George Shepherd (eds) (1981), "Problems of Comparative Research in Human Rights", Global Human Rights: Public Policies, Comparative Measures and NGO Strategies, pp. 147–171, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, . Cited in Giannone (2010), p. 69.
  25. Giannone (2010), p. 69, citing Scoble, et al. (1981) and Axel Hadenius and Jan Teorell. "Assessing Alternative Indices of Democracy", Political Concepts, Committee on Concepts and Methods, Working Paper Series, August 2005, 47 pp.
  26. Munck, Gerardo L. and Verkuilen, Jay, CPS 2002.pdf "Conceptualising and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices", Comparative Political Studies, vol. 35, no. 1 (February 2002), pp. 5–34. Cited in Giannone (2010), p. 69.
  27. Giannone (2010), p. 68.

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