Football hooliganism, also known as soccer hooliganism,[1] football rioting or soccer rioting, constitutes violence and other destructive behaviors perpetrated by spectators at association football events. Football hooliganism typically involves conflict between pseudo-tribes, formed to intimidate and attack supporters of other teams.[2] Certain clubs have long-standing rivalries with other clubs and hooliganism associated with matches between them (sometimes called local derbies) can be more severe. An example of this is the Devon Derby (Exeter City vs Plymouth Argyle).Conflict may arise at any point, before, during or after matches and occasionally outside of game situations.[3] Participants often select locations away from stadiums to avoid arrest by the police, but conflict can also erupt spontaneously inside the stadium or in the surrounding streets. In extreme cases, hooligans, police and bystanders have been killed, and riot police have intervened.[4] Hooligan-led violence has been called "aggro" (short for "aggression") and "bovver" (the Cockney pronunciation of "bother", i.e. trouble).
Hooligans who have the time and money may follow national teams to away matches and engage in hooligan behaviour against the hooligans of the home team. They may also become involved in disorder involving the general public. While national-level firms do not exist in the form of club-level firms, hooligans supporting the national team may use a collective name indicating their allegiance.
Hooliganism can create a high level of violence at football matches. Outside of the physical violence, the behavior of these fans is extremely in-orderly and leads to conflict breaking out. In some cases, hooliganism involves extreme ideological pathways such as Neo-Nazism or white supremacism.[5] These extreme beliefs which they take on can further invigorate the violence.[6] Hooligans intentions are usually not focused on the match itself, despite club rivalries or pride often justifying the violence. They engage in behavior that risks them being arrested before the match, denied admittance to the stadium, ejected from the stadium during the match or banned from attending future matches. Hooligan groups often associate themselves with, and congregate in, a specific section (called an end in England) of their team's stadium, and sometimes they include the section's name in the name of their group.
In other parts of Europe and the world these groups are known as Ultras, in Hispanic America as Barra Bravas and Brazil as Torcidas Organizadas.[7] However, it is important to not mix up hooligans with these as they do not necessarily depict violence in the same manner as hooliganism. These are Supporters' groups with the primary objective of fanatically supporting the club through chants, flags, displays and organizing trips to away games. Due their fanaticism, many of those groups frequently become embroiled with hooliganism, but do not have the explicit objective of causing violence.[8]
Another important distinction is that of alcohol driven violence and violence committed by hooligans. This can be a hard difference to notice as hooligans are regular citizens just like the other fans. Notably, game days can be seen by fans as an opportunity to get drunk, this is supported by a study from Michael Ostrowsky who draws on other research: ‘‘[f]ans who have been plied with alcohol are more likely than their sober counterparts to engage in a variety of behaviors, some of which can be problematic’’. Using this information, it is clear that alcohol and sports have a strong connection. However, restricted usage of alcohol as seen in events such as the 2022 Qatar World Cup, was effective in reducing the level of hooliganism that has been previously seen in other major tournaments.
The type of violence committed by hooligans can come in a number of forms: starting fires, unarmed and armed fighting, graffiti, hateful speech,[9] and there are even violent acts committed against the players on occasion such as the throwing of bottles or bananas to physically harm or racially attack players.
In 2014 in a match between Barcelona and Villareal, a fan racially abused Dani Alves, the Barcelona right back, throwing a banana[10] at him insinuating he was a monkey; this is a known racial stereotype against black people.
Violence can also come as a result of a player's poor performance. Fans and in particular hooligans hold their mistakes to them, ridiculing them in any way possible. Andres Escobar was a Colombian defender whose own goal error lead to the elimination of Colombia in the 1994 World Cup. Subsequently, he was murdered.
A study from the university of Munich analyzed violent crime in Germany from 2011 to 2015 and how much of that can be attributed to football. It found that on the day of the game, violent crime increased by 17% and during major rivalry games, violent crimes increased by 63%.[11]
The first recorded instances of football hooliganism in the modern game allegedly occurred during the 1880s in England, a period when gangs of supporters would intimidate neighbourhoods, in addition to attacking referees, opposing supporters and players. In 1885, after Preston North End beat Aston Villa 5–0 in a friendly match, both teams were pelted with stones, attacked with sticks, punched, kicked and spat at. One Preston player was beaten so severely that he lost consciousness and press reports at the time described the fans as "howling roughs".[12] The following year, Preston fans fought Queen's Park fans in a railway station—the first alleged instance of football hooliganism outside of a match. In 1905, a number of Preston fans were tried for hooliganism, including a "drunk and disorderly" 70-year-old woman, following their match against Blackburn Rovers.
Although instances of football crowd violence and disorder have been a feature of association football throughout its history[13] (e.g. Millwall's ground was reportedly closed in 1920, 1934 and 1950 after crowd disturbances), the phenomenon only started to gain the media's attention in the late 1950s due to the re-emergence of violence in Latin American football. In the 1955–56 English football season, Liverpool and Everton fans were involved in a number of incidents and, by the 1960s, an average of 25 hooligan incidents were being reported each year in England. The label "football hooliganism" first began to appear in the English media in the mid-1960s,[14] leading to increased media interest in, and reporting of, acts of disorder. It has been argued that this, in turn, created a 'moral panic' out of proportion with the scale of the actual problem.[15]
One of the main aspects to examine when trying to understand the root of hooligan violence is about the characteristics of sports teams. Chanting, flags, ties to the urban area, all these factors provide a base for "local patriotism",[16] and thus, give way to the unnamed groups and organizations that hooligans identify with.
This is not limited to clubs, the local patriotism referenced earlier can expand to a national level. As seen in the case of the 2016 Euros, violence began from several countries' visiting fans as well as the French host fans. The violence at these tournaments can be amplified to another level due to an increased degree of "patriotism".
A major focus of hooliganism is rooted in politics. World conflicts and player actions regarding those can increase the level of hostility from hooligans. For example, the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement had a profound impact on the world, and even drew entire leagues and nations players to take a knee for the cause. This upset fans across the globe, booing the players who kneeled and in some cases inciting violence.[6] Fans often take the stance that players should stick to their job rather than intermingling with politics. This type of reaction is not limited to football but is seen in all sports, basketball, American football and so on. This can be seen in the treatment of players such as Colin Kaepernick in the NFL who has been isolated from the sport since his protests, being labelled as disrespectful towards the country.[17]
Football hooliganism has factors in common with juvenile delinquency and what has been called "ritualized male violence".[18] Sports Studies scholars Paul Gow and Joel Rookwood at Liverpool Hope University found in a 2008 study that "Involvement in football violence can be explained in relation to a number of factors, relating to interaction, identity, legitimacy and power. Football violence is also thought to reflect expressions of strong emotional ties to a football team, which may help to reinforce a supporter's sense of identity."[19] In relation to the Heysel Stadium disaster one study from 1986 claimed that alcohol, irregular tickets sales, the disinterest of the organisers and the "'cowardly ineptitude'" of the police had led to the tragedy. Gow and Rookwood's 2008 study, which used interviews with British football hooligans found that while some identified structural social and physiological causes (e.g. aggression produces violent reactions) most interviewees claimed that media reports (especially in newspapers) and the police's handling of hooligan related events were the main causes of hooliganism. Political reasons may also play in part in hooliganism, especially if there is a political undertone to such a match (e.g. unfriendly nations facing each other).[20] Other deep division undertones in a match such as religion, ethnic, and class play a part as well in hooliganism.[21]
As an attempt to explain the hooliganism phenomena in Brazil, Nepomuceno and other scholars at Federal University of Pernambuco have assessed 1363 hooligan incidents before and after an alcohol sanction enforced during 8 years. While alcohol presented low evidence of contribution to the incidents of violence, the knockout phases, finals, competitiveness (derby matches), small score boundaries and the pride levels were some of the potentials for the violence among sports spectators. Months after the work being conducted, the State Legislature of Pernambuco decided to abolish the sanction to allow alcohol intake in stadiums.[22] Writing for the BBC in 2013,[23] David Bond stated that in the UK,
The violence perpetrated by hooligans is somewhat of a dying phenomenon although experiencing some surges around 2015. The mid-1900s was when hooliganism was at its highest rate,[24] however, police and clubs themselves have taken strides to prevent the level of hooliganism, and today, violence at games has decreased significantly not only in the amount that's taking place, but in the level of the conflict as well.[11]
One example of anti-hooligan measures are some of the new rules that stadiums have put in place regarding alcohol. Some stadiums do not allow fans to bring their alcoholic drinks up to their seats; they are only permitted to the lower levels near the concessions. In addition, bottles are typically plastic, as to avoid the threat of fans hurling them at other fans or even players. In some cases, specifically in major tournaments, more extreme measures have to be put in place to help reduce the chances of violence. For example, at the 2016 Euros, officials recommended a complete ban on alcohol. In the event that violence results in riots that go out of control, police utilize tools like tear gas and water cannons in an attempt on crowd control. This can sometimes lead to increased violence from the hooligans.
Despite Belgian football hooliganism peaking from the 80s to the 90s, it did not disappear even after the establishment of stringent anti-hooligan measures by police and governments. Fights inside the stadium are growing rare, but have changed slowly and morphed into organized fights in the wilderness and nearby cities.[25] Royal Antwerp, Beerschot,[26] Club Brugge[27] and Anderlecht[28] are notorious for hooligan fanbases. Other teams known for having violent supporters include Standard Liège, Charleroi and Racing Genk.
Football hooliganism in Bosnia and Herzegovina is particularly associated with the supporters of clubs such as FK Sarajevo (Horde Zla), FK Željezničar Sarajevo (The Maniacs), FK Velež Mostar (Red Army), HŠK Zrinjski Mostar (Ultrasi) and FK Borac Banja Luka (Lešinari). Other clubs with hooligans as supporters include FK Sloboda Tuzla (Fukare), NK Čelik Zenica (Robijaši) and NK Široki Brijeg (Škripari).
Many fans are associated with fascist ideologies, supporting and glorifying extremist movements such as the Ustaše and the Nazis.[29]
In 2009, riots between supports of Bosnian Premier League club sides NK Široki Brijeg and FK Sarajevo left Horde Zla supporter Vedran Puljić (from Sarajevo) dead from a gunshot wound.[30]
Hooliganism has also been present in lower leagues.[31] Riots have been common in Jablanica because fans of different clubs tend to meet and clash there.[32]
A 2019 Euro qualifying match between Bulgaria and England was suspended twice to remove fans that had been taunting black English players. Raheem Sterling said that he had heard masked groups making monkey sounds and performing Nazi salutes and throwing objects onto the pitch. After the match Bulgarian police officers were called in to escort the English fans to the safety of their hotels protecting them from the hooligans that had been removed earlier on during the match.
Football hooliganism in Croatia has seen riots over inter-ethnic resentments and the politics that were reignited by the breakup of the Yugoslav federation in the 1990s.[33] Two of the best known hooligan firms are Torcida (Hajduk Split) and Bad Blue Boys (Dinamo Zagreb).[34]
On 13 May 1990 (before the breakup of Yugoslavia), Serbian club Red Star Belgrade was in Zagreb to play Dinamo Zagreb at the Maksimir Stadium. Red Star was accompanied by 3000 Delije, the organised supporters of the club. Before the match a number of small fights broke out. Police reinforcements soon arrived with armoured vehicles and water cannons, focusing to separate the fans. Dinamo's player Zvonimir Boban kicked one policeman, defending a Dinamo's fan beaten by the police. The fighting lasted for over an hour and hundreds of people were injured. Football hooliganism in Croatia is sometimes connected with racism and nationalism,[33] although the racist remarks, if any appear, are aimed solely to the opposing club's players, never to one's own squad.
Ethnic tension between Croats and Serbs has also led to fighting at a football match in Australia. On 13 March 2005, Sydney United (who have a large Croatian following and were established by Croatian immigrants) and Bonnyrigg White Eagles (who have a large Serbian following and were established by Serbian immigrants) met in Sydney in the New South Wales Premier League. About 500 fans clashed, resulting in two police officers getting injured and five fans being arrested. Football NSW held an inquiry into the events. Both clubs denied that the fight was racially motivated or that there was any ethnic rivalry.[35]
Croatian hooligans are also notorious for staging large illegal pyroshows at stadiums, where signal flares and smoke bombs are hurled onto the pitch causing postponement or cancellation of the match. A large incident occurred in 2003 in Rome during the Hajduk-Roma match when 900 Torcida fans threw signal flares at Roma fans resulting in various injuries and clashes with the police.[36]
Another incident occurred in Genoa in 2007 when masked Torcida fans attacked the police with bricks, bottles and stones. Rioting continued in the stadium when Torcida fans threw chairs into the pitch and made Nazi salutes. A riot occurred in 2006 in Osijek during the Osijek-Dinamo match. Several clashes between the Bad Blue Boys and Kohorta occurred before the match in which one Osijek fan received several stab wounds after which Osijek fans attacked the police and Dinamo fans with signal flares and stones.
A large riot occurred in 2008 in Prague prior to the Sparta Prague-Dinamo match. Riots were ignited with the support of Sparta's ultrafans to Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić.[37] Approximately 500 Bad Blue Boys rioted in the city centre, breaking into shops and attacking police with chairs, signal flares and stones. Approximately 300 Bad Blue Boys were detained and eight police officers were injured. Prior to the riots some Bad Blue Boys provoked local Romani people by giving Nazi salutes.
A large riot occurred on 1 May 2010 at the Maksimir stadium when the Bad Blue Boys clashed with the police resulting in many arrests and one critically injured police officer. After the match violent clashes continued in which one Dinamo fan was shot by police officers. A large incident occurred in 2009 prior to the FC Timişoara-Dinamo match. 400 Bad Blue Boys rioted in the city centre and attacked local people. After the incident Romanian police detained a large number of Dinamo fans but the situation escalated again at the FC Timişoara stadium when 200 Bad Blue Boys tore down the pitch fence and attacked the police with chairs and bats resulting in several injured police officers. During the clash, Dinamo fans fired signal missiles at FC Timişoara fans resulting in severe injuries.
In December 2010, 10–15 Tornado (Zadar) hooligans attacked a Partizan traveling coach with stones and bricks resulting in one injured person. In December 2010, 30–40 Bad Blue Boys hooligans attacked a PAOK traveling coach with stones, bricks and flares setting the traveling coach on fire and inflicting injuries on several passengers.
In November 2014, during a Euro 2016 qualifying game in Milan, Italy, hooligans from Croatia threw flares and fireworks onto the field and the game had to be briefly suspended.[38]
In August 2023, an AEK Athens fan was stabbed to death when around 100 Dinamo Zagreb hooligans clashed with local fans in one of the city's suburbs. The two sides of supporters attacked one another near the AEK stadium, throwing stun grenades, stones, incendiary devices and other objects. Police made 96 arrests throughout the night until the early hours of the morning.[39] 102 Croatian fans were charged by the police who suspect links with the 'Bad Blue Boys,' hard-line supporters of Dinamo Zagreb.[40]
Football hooliganism in Cyprus has been an issue for the past few decades and incidents are generally associated with the 5 major Cypriot clubs.
Anorthosis Famagusta FC fans have been in involved in many incidents on most occasions involving their ultras group "Mahites".[41] The two clubs in Limassol, AEL Limassol and Apollon Limassol have also been involved in numerous incidents, especially in recent years.[42] [43] [44] [45]
Supporters of APOEL FC and AC Omonia Nicosia, the two most successful and most popular clubs in the country are notorious for hooliganism. The most violent cases of hooliganism in Cyprus usually involve the two teams.[46] [47] [48] [49] In May 2009 APOEL fans entered the Omonia stand and engaged in fistfights with Omonia fans eventually throwing one down the stand stairs.[50] 6 months later in November fans of the two teams clashed close to the GSP Stadium when APOEL fans tried to hijack a futsal tournament organized by Omonia. Many were injured including an APOEL fan who was almost beaten to death.[51]
The rivalry between Omonia and APOEL has its roots in politics. APOEL fans are in their majority right wing whereas Omonia fans tend to be left wing. Communist symbols in the Omonia stand and right wing or even fascist symbols in the APOEL stand are not uncommon.[52] The Limassol rivalry between Apollon and AEL Limassol is more a matter of what team dominates over the city.[53] Hooliganism in the case of Anorthosis is also politically linked, especially when the club plays a left wing team such as Omonia. Other incidents between clubs of different cities that are of the same political orientation are associated with intercity rivalries, particularly when a club from Limassol faces a club from Nicosia.[53]
Football hooliganism in France is often rooted in social conflict, including racial tension. In the 1990s, fans of Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) fought with supporters from Belgium, England, Germany, Italy and Scotland.[54] There is a long-standing north–south rivalry between PSG (representing Paris and by extension northern France) and Olympique de Marseille (representing the South of France) which has encouraged authorities to be extremely mobilised during games between the two teams. Violent fights and post-game riots including car burning, and shop windows smashing have been a regular fixture of PSG-OM games. In 2000, the bitter rivalry turned particularly violent when a Marseille fan was seriously injured by a projectile.[55]
On 24 May 2001, fifty people were injured when fighting broke out at a match between PSG and Turkish club Galatasaray at the Parc des Princes stadium.[56] [57] PSG were initially given a record $571,000 fine, but it was reduced on appeal to $114,000. Galatasaray was initially fined $114,000 by UEFA, but it too was eventually reduced to $28,500.[58] In May 2001, six PSG fans from the Supporters Club, were arrested and charged with assault, carrying weapons, throwing items on the pitch and racism. The six were alleged to have deliberately entered a part of the Parc des Princes stadium where French fans of Turkish origin were standing, in order to attack them. The six were banned from all football stadiums for the duration of their trial.[58] [59] [60]
On 24 November 2006 a PSG fan was shot and killed by police and another seriously injured during fighting between PSG fans and the police. The violence occurred after PSG lost 4–2 to Israeli club Hapoel Tel Aviv at the Parc des Prince in a UEFA Cup match. PSG fans chased a fan of Hapoel Tel Aviv, shouting racist and anti-Semitic slogans. A plainclothes police officer who tried to protect the Hapoel fan was attacked, and in the chaos, one fan was shot dead and another seriously injured. In response, the French Interior Minister, Nicolas Sarkozy held a meeting with the president of the French Football League, Frederic Thiriez to discuss racism and violence in football. The director-general of the French police, Michel Gaudin, insisted that measures against football hooliganism had reduced racist incidents to six that season from nineteen in the previous season. Gaudin also stated that 300 known hooligans could be banned from matches.[61] The fan who was shot, was linked with the Boulogne Boys, a group of fans who modelled themselves on British hooligans in the 1980s. The group's name comes from the Kop of Boulogne (KOB), one of the two main home fan stands at the Parc des Princes.
The KOB themselves held a silent memorial march attended by 300 and accused the police office of murdering the fan. They cited bias in the French press who had only given a "one-sided" account of the incident.[61] French President Jacques Chirac condemned violence that led up to the shooting, stating that he was horrified by the reports of racism and anti-Semitism. French Prime Minister, Dominique de Villepin called for new, tougher measures to deal with football hooligans. Prosecutors opened an inquiry into the incident, to determine whether the officer involved should face criminal charges.[62] [63] Before a home match against Sochaux on 4 January 2006, two Arab youths were punched and kicked by white fans outside the entrance to the KOB. During the match racist insults were aimed at black players and a PSG player of Indian origin, Vikash Dhorasoo was told to "go sell peanuts in the metro". In the recent years, following UK's example, France's legislation has changed, including more and more banning of violent fans from stadiums. The threat of dissolution of fan groups has also tempered the outward rivalry and violence of a number of fans. Known violent fans under ban sentences are to report to the nearest police station on nights of game, to prove they are not anywhere in proximity to the stadium.
On 11 June 2016, during a Euro 2016 match in Marseille between Russia and England, violent conflict broke out between the fans and left 35 injured. Both threw numerous items at each other and engaged in physical combat. Even a person who is recording the incident can be seen stomping another person's head.[64] Because of this, both countries were given a disqualification warning soon after.[65] The match ended with 1–1.
On 16 April 2017, during a match between Olympique Lyonnais and SC Bastia, supporters of SC Bastia invaded the pitch in an attempt to fight Lyonnais players. The match was then postponed.[66]
September 2022 saw OGC Nice and 1. FC Köln fans clash outside and inside the Nice stadium, which delayed the start by 55 minutes, 39 were injured with around 50 Cologne fans attacking the home end throwing pyrotechnics.[67]
In 2022 there was chaos at the UEFA Champions League final with dozens of arrests and hundreds of injuries, mainly to Liverpool fans who were locked out of the stadium and being attacked by Parisian gangs. French police did not go to their assistance, and instead also attacked the fans and then blamed them for the situation. A UEFA report blamed UEFA for poor security and French police for being heavy handed in attacking, rather than defending, the Liverpool fans.[68]
The 18-year old supporter of FC Berlin Mike Polley was killed by several shots fired by police in Leipzig during clashes between supporters of FC Berlin and police before the match between FC Sachsen Leipzig and FC Berlin on 3 November 1990.[69] [70] In June 1998, after a FIFA World Cup match in France between Germany and Yugoslavia a French policeman was beaten to the point of brain damage by German fans. Following the incident, German police contacted many of the known 2,000+ German hooligans to warn them they would be arrested if they traveled to upcoming matches in France.[71] A German fan was arrested in 1998 and charged with attempted murder[72] [73] and in 1999, four more Germans were convicted in the attack. The main defendant, Andre Zawacki, was found guilty of attempted murder and sentenced to ten years in jail. The other three defendants were convicted of grievous bodily harm and given jail sentences of between six months and three-and-a-half years.[74] In 2001, Markus Warnecke, the German fan who was accused of leading the attack, was found guilty and jailed for five years and banned from France for ten years, and from all sports facilities for five years.[75]
Some football hooliganism in Germany has been linked to neo-Nazism and far right groups.[76] In March 2005, German football fans fought with police and rival fans at a friendly match between Germany and Slovenia in Celje, Slovenia, damaging cars and shops, and shouting racist slogans. The German Football Association (DFB) apologised for the behaviour. As a result, 52 people were arrested; 40 Germans and 12 Slovenians.[77] [78] Following a 2–0 defeat to Slovakia in Bratislava, Slovakia, German hooligans fought with the local police, and six people were injured and two were taken into custody. The DFB again apologised for fans who chanted racist slogans.[79]
In June 2006, Germany beat Poland in a World Cup match in Dortmund, which led to violent clashes. The police detained over 300 people in Dortmund and German fans threw chairs, bottles and fireworks at the police. Of the 300 arrested, 120 were known hooligans.[80] In October 2006, a task force was established to deal with violence and racism in German football stadiums. President of the DFB Theo Zwanziger and president of Bundesliga Werner Hackmann held a crisis meeting following violence at several German lower-division matches. The worst incident took place at a Third division (North) match between the Hertha BSC Berlin B-team and Dynamo Dresden, in which 23 policemen were injured. Dynamo Dresden fans tried to invade the pitch, and threw missiles (including gas cartridges and plastic seats) at police. The police responded with batons and pepper spray. At a Second Division match between FC Augsburg and 1860 Munich, 21 people were arrested and police used pepper spray to disperse fans. In addition, 70 amateur and youth matches in Siegen-Wittgenstein were called off when referees refused to take to the pitch, fearing for their safety.[81] In February 2007 in Saxony, all German lower league matches, from the fifth division downward were cancelled after about 800 fans attacked 300 police officers (injuring 39 of them) after a match between Lokomotive Leipzig and Erzgebirge Aue II.[82] There were minor disturbances after the Germany and England match during the 2010 FIFA World Cup. An English flag was burned down amongst a mob of German supporters in Duisburg-Hamborn in Germany.[83]
The first incidents between Football fans in Greece were recorded in June 1930, after the match between Aris and Panathinaikos at Thessaloniki. While Panathinaikos fans where arriving at the port of Piraeus from Thessaloniki, Olympiacos fans, who had not forgotten the big loss of their team (8–2) by Panathinaikos rioted with the green fans. In 1962, after Panathinaikos and PAOK match incidents, newspapers wrote for the first time that hooligans vandalized Leoforos Alexandras Stadium. On 19 November 1966, a big flag at the 13th gate of Leoforos Alexandras Stadium announced the arrival of a new group on the scene. Gate 13 would be the first organized group that over the years became a part of the club by affecting club decisions and by following the club on all possible occasions. PAOK fans made Gate 4 in 1976 and Olympiacos fans created the Gate 7 in 1981, the same year that AEK Athens fans created the Original 21.
In 1982, in a match between Aris – PAOK, Aristidis Dimitriadis was stabbed and later died in Thessaloniki's hospital. On 26 October 1986, at the Alcazar Stadium of Larissa, Charalambos Blionas, AEL's supporter, was killed by a flare pistol thrown by the PAOK fans. One month later Anastasios Zontos was stabbed to death in Omonoia square in the center of Athens before the match AEK Athens and PAOK. In January 1991, before the derby of AEK Athens. and Olympiacos, George Panagiotou died in the incidents between hooligans outside Nikos Goumas Stadium hit by flare pistol. On 10 April 1991, after the Greek Basketball Cup final between Panionios and PAOK in Piraeus, a car with PAOK supporters were violently attacked with an improvised molotov cocktail by unknown hooligans on Greek National Road 1. Two people burned alive and other two people were seriously injured, but they survived. The perpetrators were never found. On 15 May 2005, in Thessaloniki derby between Iraklis and Aris, Aris's hooligans called SUPER 3 invaded the pitch when the score was 2–1 for Iraklis. A football player Tasos Katsambis was injured during the clashes. The match was halted and Aris was punished with a 4-point deduction which led to their relegation to the Second Division.
In April 2007, all sports stadiums were closed down in Greece for two weeks following the death of a fan in a pre-arranged fight between hooligans in Athens on 29 March. The fight involved 500 fans of rival Super League Greece clubs Panathinaikos, which is based in Athens, and Olympiacos, which is based in nearby Piraeus. The Greek government immediately suspended all team sports in Greece and severed the ties between teams and their supporters' organizations.[84] A Third Division match between Panetolikos and Ilioupoli was stopped for thirty minutes when players and fans clashed following a Panetolikos disallowed goal. Two players and a coach were sent to the hospital.[85]
On 18 April, rival fans clashed with each other and riot police in Ioannina during and after a Greek Cup semi-final match between local rivals PAS Giannena and AEL. There was trouble during the game in which AEL won 2–0. Fans set fire to rubbish bins and smashed shop windows, while police tried to disperse them by firing tear gas.[84] [86]
On 10 October 2009, a group of about 30 hooligans disrupted an under-17 match between the academies of local rivals PAOK and Aris. Among the injured were a group of Aris players and their coach, a veteran PAOK player and another official. On 7 October 2011, a group of Greece national football team supporters firebombed the away section of a Euro 2012 qualifying match against Croatia in Athens.On 18 March 2012, during the match for the Super League in Athens Olympic Stadium between Panathinaikos and Olympiacos, home team Panathinaikos's fans who were inside the stadium attacked police forces with Molotov bombs, causing extended damages to the stadium, while police forces were unable to keep peace.On 5 January 2014, in Aigaleo, a suburb in Athens, the local team Aigaleo was hosting AEK Athens, a Third Division match. Before the match clashes broke up between AEK and Aigaleo fans. Indeed, the clashes resulted in the arrest of a security guard of the stadium who was accused of participating in the clashes among Aigaleo hooligans and also accused of committing attempted murder against an AEK fan.
On 15 September 2014, in Nea Alikarnassos, the team Herodotus[87] was hosting Ethnikos Piraeus, a Third Division match. On 75' minute of the game, a clash between the supporters of the two clubs forced the referee to stop the match. During the clash, a 45-year-old supporter of Ethnikos Piraeus suffered a severe head injury and died two weeks later.[88] [89]
On 1 February 2022 an Aris fan was stabbed to death by PAOK hooligans in Charilaou district near the stadium of Aris in an attack against Aris' supporters. On July 6, 2023, it was announced that all defendants had been found guilty of manslaughter or accessory to murder, contrary to the original indictment of manslaughter (murder).
In December 2023, following a series of violent sport related incidents, Greece banned fans from watching all Super League 1 championship football games for two months, the ban can also be applied to home European games matches.[90]
Local derbies between Budapest teams Ferencvárosi Torna Club (based in Ferencváros) and Újpest FC (based in Újpest) are frequently occasions for violence between supporters.[91] Other clubs whose supporters are reportedly involved in hooliganism include Debreceni VSC (Debrecen), Diósgyőri VTK (Miskolc), Nyíregyháza Spartacus FC (Nyíregyháza), Zalaegerszegi TE (Zalaegerszeg), Haladás VSE (Szombathely) and Videoton FC (Székesfehérvár).
Incidents have been known to occur at games involving teams in Ireland. The most heated and well known derby in the League of Ireland is between Dublin rivals Shamrock Rovers F.C and Bohemian F.C. On 15 July 2019 a League of Ireland match was the scene of crowd trouble following a match between Dublin clubs UCD and Bohemians. Missiles were thrown from the crowd where the referee and players had to be escorted away.[92]
The term ultrà or ultras is used to describe hooligans in Italy. Italy's ultras started in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as wannabe paramilitary groups, and gave themselves names such as Commandos, Guerrillas and Fedayeen.[93] One group of Juventus' ultras are called Droogs (named after the violent types in A Clockwork Orange).[93] Every Italian club has its ultra gang and big clubs have dozens.[93]
Rome is dubbed "stab city" by the British press due to the number of stabbings from ultras there.[94] John Foot, a professor of modern Italian history at University College London and an author on Italian football states, "They target the buttocks because the victim is not likely to die. They want to show they can hurt their rivals and get away with it."[94] In 1984, ultras of A.S. Roma stabbed Liverpool fans in the aftermath of Liverpool winning the 1984 European Cup Final in Rome.[94] In February 2001, Roma fans again stabbed Liverpool fans, and further knife attacks from Roma ultras include against fans of Middlesbrough (in 2006) and twice against Manchester United (2007 and 2009).[94] [95]
After a weekend of violence in January 2007, the president of the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) threatened to halt all league football. An official of amateur club Sammartinese died when he was caught up in a fight between players and fans in Luzzi, among numerous incidents of disorder in Florence, Bergamo and elsewhere.[96] In February 2007, the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) suspended all football matches after Police Officer Filippo Raciti was killed due to liver damage from blunt object trauma when football violence broke out at a Serie A match between Catania and Palermo.[97]
Before the 2014 Coppa Italia Final in Rome between Napoli and Fiorentina, three Napoli fans were shot outside the stadium before the match, two with arm injuries.[98] Ciro Esposito, who was in a critical state after being shot in the chest, died in hospital on 25 June.[99] Police, who found the gun, have stated that they do not believe that the shootings were related to other clashes by the two sets of fans: prior to the game, there were reports of firecrackers and other projectiles being thrown between them in the Tor di Quinto area of Rome. Kick-off was subsequently delayed as Napoli fans did not want the match to start without knowing the condition of the shot fans. When match organisers attempted to speak to the Napoli fans, accompanied by their midfielder Marek Hamšík, they were "pelted with flares and smoke bombs".[100] Daniele De Santis, a Roma ultra was convicted of shooting Esposito and was sentenced to 26 years in prison on 24 May 2016;[101] his sentenced was later reduced on appeals to 16 years on 26 September 2018.[102]
In a Euro 2016 qualifying match in Podgorica on 27 March 2015, a few seconds in, a hooligan threw a flare at Russia goalkeeper Igor Akinfeev injuring him. The match was then temporarily suspended. Later fighting between the teams and more hooliganism rendered the game abandoned.[103]
In March 2019, during a Euro 2020 qualifying match between Montenegro and England, several England players including Danny Rose, Raheem Sterling and Callum Hudson-Odoi were allegedly subjected to monkey chants from Montenegro fans.[104]
The earliest recorded case of hooliganism in the Netherlands occurred when Rotterdam club Feyenoord and English club Tottenham Hotspur met at the 1974 UEFA Cup Final, where Tottenham hooligans destroyed portions of the Feyenoord stadium tribunes. It was the first time the Netherlands encountered such destructive hooliganism.[105] Other Dutch clubs associated with hooliganism include PSV Eindhoven, Ajax, FC Utrecht, FC Groningen, Twente Enschede, MVV Maastricht and ADO Den Haag.
The most violent rivalry is between Ajax and Feyenoord. A particularly serious incident was the so-called "Battle of Beverwijk" on 23 March 1997, in which several people were seriously injured and one killed.[106] The 2002–03 season was marked by similar incidents, and also by fighting between fans of Ajax and FC Utrecht.[107] Hooliganism in the Netherlands peaked in the 1980s and 1990s. In later years it declined due to measures taken. Hooliganism still occurs from time to time but the prevalence within the stadiums has declined.[108]
Other serious incidents include:
One of the biggest riots occurred at a World Cup qualifying match between Poland and England on 29 May 1993 in Chorzów.
Arranged football hooligan fights in Poland are known as ustawki; they have become common in Poland since the late 1990s. On 30 March 2003, Polish police arrested 120 people after rival football supporters fought during a match between Śląsk Wrocław and Arka Gdynia.[112] During the riot, hooligans pelted police officers with stones and fought a running battle with knives and axes. One victim was seriously injured and later died in hospital.
During the 1998–99 UEFA Cup, a knife was thrown at Italian footballer Dino Baggio, from Parma F.C. by Polish supporters (allegedly Wisła Kraków fans), injuring his head.[113] Supporters of Legia Warszawa also attracted negative attention in Lithuania during the match against Vetra Vilnius on 10 July 2007, where hooligans of Legia destroyed the home's team field and received a 2-year ban from all European Competitions.
The most notable hooligan incidents happened in Kraków where supporters of the Wisła Kraków and KS Cracovia teams have a rivalry that reportedly extended to killings of opposing fans.
Country-wide riots involving football fans were seen in 1998 in Słupsk and 2015 in Knurów.