Female guards in Nazi concentration camps explained

German: Aufseherin (pronounced as /de/, pl. German: Aufseherinnen) was the position title for a female guard in Nazi concentration camps. Of the 50,000 guards who served in the concentration camps, training records indicate that approximately 3,500 were women.^[1] In 1942, the first female guards arrived at Auschwitz and Majdanek from Ravensbrück. The year after, the Nazis began conscripting women because of a shortage of male guards. In the context of these camps, the German position title of German: Aufseherin translates to (female) "overseer" or "attendant". Later female guards were dispersed to Bolzano (1944–1945), Kaiserwald-Riga (1943–44), Mauthausen (March – May 1945), Stutthof (1942–1945), Vaivara^[2] (1943–1944), Vught (1943–1944), and at Nazi concentration camps, subcamps, work camps, detention camps and other posts.

Recruitment

Female guards were generally from the lower to middle classes^[3] and had no relevant work experience. Their occupational backgrounds varied: one source mentions former prison matrons, hairdressers, tramcar-conductors, or retired teachers.^[4] Volunteers were recruited via advertisements in German newspapers asking for women to show their love for the Reich and join the SS-Gefolge ("SS-Retinue", a Schutzstaffel (SS) support and service organisation for women). Additionally, some were conscripted based on data in their SS files. Adolescent enrollment in the League of German Girls acted as a vehicle of indoctrination for many of the women.^[5] At one of the post-war hearings, German: Oberaufseherin Herta Haase-Breitmann-Schmidt, head female overseer, claimed that her female guards were not full-fledged SS women. Consequently, at some tribunals it was disputed whether SS-Helferinnen employed at the camps were official members of the SS, thus leading to conflicting court decisions. Many of them belonged to the Waffen-SS and to the SS-Helferinnen Corps.^{[6] [7]}

While training records suggest that as many as 3,500 women were employed as camp guards, some sources estimate a much lower number, between 50 and 190.^{[8] [9]}

Supervision levels and ranks

Female guards were collectively known as SS-Helferin (German: "SS Helper women"). The supervisory levels within the SS-Helferin were as follows:

1. Chef Oberaufseherin, "chief senior overseer" [Ravensbrück]
2. Lagerführerin, "camp leader"
3. Oberaufseherin, "senior overseer"
4. Erstaufseherin, "First Guard" [senior overseer in some satellite camps]
5. Rapportführerin, "Report Leader"
6. Arbeitsdienstführerin, "work recording leader"
7. Arbeitseinsatzführerin, "work input overseer"
8. Blockführerin, "Block Leader"
9. Kommandoführerin, "Work Squad Leader" [senior overseer in some satellite camps]
10. Hundeführerin, "Dog Guide Overseer"
11. Aufseherin, "Overseer"

Daily life

Relations between SS men and female guards are said to have existed in many of the camps, and Heinrich Himmler had told the SS men to regard the female guards as equals and comrades. At the relatively small Helmbrechts subcamp near Hof, Germany, the camp commandant, Wilhelm Dörr, openly pursued a sexual relationship with the head female overseer Herta Haase-Breitmann-Schmidt.

Corruption was another aspect of the female guard culture. Ilse Koch, known as "The Witch of Buchenwald", was married to the camp commandant, Karl Koch. Both were rumored to have embezzled millions of Reichsmark, for which Karl Koch was convicted and executed by the Nazis a few weeks before Buchenwald was liberated by the U.S. Army; however, Ilse was cleared of the charge. Convicted of war crimes, she was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1951.

One apparent exception to the brutal female overseer prototype was Klara Kunig, a camp guard in 1944 who served at Ravensbrück and its subcamp at Dresden-Universelle. The head wardress at the camp pointed out that she was too polite and too kind towards the inmates, resulting in her subsequent dismissal from camp duty in January 1945. Her fate has been unknown since 13 February 1945, the date of the allied firebombing of Dresden.^[10]

Camps, names and ranks

Near the end of the war, women were forced from factories in the German Labour Exchange and sent to training centres. Women were also trained on a smaller scale at the camps of Neuengamme;^[11] Auschwitz I, II, and III; Flossenbürg (as well as Dresden-Goehle, Holleischen and Zwodau);^[12] Gross Rosen (as well as its satellites in Langenbielau,^[13] Ober Hohenelbe^[14] and Parschnitz); Stutthof,^[15] as well as a few at Mauthausen.^[16] Most of these women came from the regions around the camps. In 1944, the first female overseers were stationed at the satellite camps belonging to Neuengamme, Dachau,^[17] Mauthausen, a very few at Natzweiler-Struthof, and none at the Mittelbau-Dora complex until March 1945.^[18]

Twenty-eight German: Aufseherinnen served in Vught,^[19] some at Buchenwald,^[20] 60 in Bergen-Belsen, one at Dachau overseeing the brothel,^[21] more than 30 in Mauthausen^[22] (January 1945–May 1945), 30 at Majdanek,^[23] around 200 at Auschwitz and its subcamps,^[24] 140 at Sachsenhausen and its subcamps, 158 trained at Neuengamme, 47 trained at Stutthof, compared to 958 who served in Ravensbrück,^[25] 561 in the Flossenbürg complex, and over 800 in the Gross Rosen.^[26] Many female supervisors were trained and/or worked at subcamps in Germany, Poland, France, Austria, and Czechoslovakia.^[27]

• The head overseer at Allendorf was SS-Oberaufseherin/Erstaufseherin Kaethe Hoern (September 1944–March 1945) while her assistant was SS-Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Hildegard K.;^[28] in Auschwitz Oberaufseherin Johanna Langefeld^[29] (March 1942–October 1942), Lagerfuehrerin Maria Mandl^[24] (October 1942–November 1944), Stellvertetende Oberaufseherin Emma Zimmer^[30] (1942–43), Stellvertretende Lagerfuehrerin Margot Dreschel^[31] (late 1943–November 1944), Arbeitsdienstfuehrerin Elisabeth Hasse,^[32] Oberaufseherin Elisabeth Volkenrath^[33] (November 1944–January 1945), and Rapportfuehrerin Irma Grese^[34] (1944–of Hungarian Jewish women's compound under Mandl, Dreschel and Hasse), Mandl herself commanded all the SS women within Auschwitz-Birkenau. Grese and Volkenrath were convicted of war crimes and hanged on 13 December 1945; Mandl was hanged on 24 January 1948.
• At Barth Lagerfuehrerin Irmgard Reissner^[35] (1944-April 1945), German: Oberaufseherin Ruth Neudeck,^[36] (March 1945–May 1945), Stellvertretende Lagerfuehrerin Gerda Langner,^[37] and Kommandoführerin Gertrud Herrmann,^[38] in Belzig head female guard was Hedwig Ullrich^[39] (Summer 1944–April 1945).
• In Bergen-Belsen the three head overseers were Oberaufseherin Elisabeth Volkenrath^[33] (February 1945–April 1945), Rapportführerin Hildegard Gollasch,^[40] while Herta Ehlert^[41] served an additional deputy wardress and Irma Grese^[42] (January/February 1945–April 1945) was Kommandoführerin alongside Juana Bormann.^[43] At the Gross-Rosen annex camp at Bernsdorf (Bernartice), Maria Mühl^[44] was Kommandofuehrerin under Lagerfuehrerin Else Hawlik,^[45] who commanded all of the Trautenau Ring labor camps. At the Gross-Rosen annex camp at Breslau-Hundsfeld (Wroclaw Psie Pole) the Kommandofuehrerin was Emilie Kowa^[46] and another high female ranking officer-Margarete Schueller.^[47]
• Johanna Wisotzki^[48] was Oberaufseherin in Bromberg-Ost (Bydgoszcz East) from June 1944 until January/February 1945 along with Gerda Steinhoff, while Ilse Koch was appointed (unofficially) head female guard at Buchenwald, even though the camp had very few female prisoners. Koch was convicted of war crimes; she committed suicide in Aichach women's prison on 1 September 1967.
• At Christianstadt, a Gross-Rosen satellite in Silesia, Emilie Harms^[49] was in charge of the camp; her assistant was Stellvertretende Kommandofuehrerin Lina Pohl.^[49] In the Danzig Holm subcamp Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Gerda Steinhoff^[50] was second-in-command of all the female overseers and prisoners (October 1944–December 1944); in the Dora Mittelbau satellite in Gross-Werther, this was handled by Lagerfuhrerin Erna Petermann.^[51]
• At the Ravensbrück/Flossenbürg subcamp at Dresden Universelle, Erstaufseherin Ida Guhl^[52] and Erstaufseherin Charlotte Hanakam^[52] were chief wardresses (1944–April 1945), and in Flossenbürg subcamp at Dresden-Goehle, this rank was given to several women, including Erstaufseherin Gertrud Schaefer^[53] and Margarethe de Hueber^[53] (1944); Erstaufseherin Gertrud Becker^[54] oversaw the Flossenbürg satellite in Hainichen (October 1944–April 1945), Erstaufseherin Dora Lange^[55] and later Erstaufseherin Gertrud Weniger^[55] (1944–1945) commanded Oederan.
• At the Gross-Rosen subcamp in Gabersdorf, Kommandoführerin Charlotte Ressel^[56] was chief, and at the main camp Oberaufseherin Jane Bernigau^[57] was chief among all of the subcamps women guard personnel (800); in the Grünberg (Zielona Góra) satellite, Lagerführerin Anna Fiebeg (June 1944–January 1945) served as chief overseer, while Stellvetretende Lagerführerinnen Anna Jahn^[58] and Hela Milefski were replacement camp overseers.
• At Gräben (Grabina/Strzegom (PL), Kommandofuehrerin Katharina Reimann^[59] was head woman guard and Margarete Hentschel^[60] was her assistant as a Rapportfuehrerin; in Graeflish-Roehrsdorf, Silesia, Kommandoführerin Gertrud Sauer^[61] was in charge of the women's camp; and at the Gruschwitz-Neusalz subcamp of Gross Rosen Helene Obuch (1943 – June 1944), then Kommandoführerin Elisabeth Gersch^[62] (June 1944 – January 1945) were in charge, and at Hamburg-Wandsbek, Oberaufseherin Annemie von der Huelst^[63] was in charge, followed by her second-in-command, Kommandoführerin Loni Gutzeit.^[64] At Hamburg-Sasel, Kommandofuehrerin Ida Roemer^[65] was the head female guard.
• Helmbrechts was a subcamp of Floßenbürg built near Hof, Germany. Originally, Erstaufseherin Martha Dell' Antonia^[66] (Summer 1944–?) served there as head female guard over 22 female guards. In late 1944 she was replaced by the Commandant's (Doerr's) mistress, Herta Haase-Breitmann,^[67] who was originally a Kommandofuehrerin.
• In Holleischen Anna Schmidt, Dora Lange was senior overseer along with Elfriede Tribus.
• Kratzau II in Czechoslovakia were overseen by Kommandofuehrerin Elsa Hennrich^[68] while a certain Denner (or Dinner) commanded Kratzau I; Lenzing by Oberaufseherin Margarete Freinberg(er)^[69] (November 1944–May 1945).
• Majdanek and Lublin-Alterflughafen camps were headed by Oberaufsherin Else Ehrich^[23] (October 1942–June 1944), her immediate assistant, Rapportführerin and Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Hermine Braunsteiner,^[23] and further deputies Else Weber^[70] and Elisabeth Knoblich.^[71] Knoblich was nicknamed "Halt die Klappe!" ("Shut up!") and Hermine Braunsteiner was deported from the United States to Germany in 1973 and died in 1999.
• At the Mittelsteine concentration camp the head overseer was Kommandoführerin Käthe Jenesch^[72] and SS-Aufseherinnen Philomena Locker^[73] (reportedly sentenced after the War to seven years' imprisonment), Charlotte Neugebauer,^[74] and a Fraulein Schneider,^[74] (first name unknown). At Merzdorf Erna Rinke^[75] was Chief Overseer (Oberaufseherin).
• In Obernheide, Kommandoführerin Gertrud Heise^[76] was chief over seven (known) SS women (September 1944–April 1945), and in Plaszow, Oberaufseherin Elsa Ehrich,^[77] Anna Gerwing (as Rapportführerin) and Kommandoführerin Alice Orlowski among another unknown women.
• Ravensbrück was the central and largest training ground for female guards. The first Oberaufseherin was Margarete Stollberg who organized construction operations at the camp in a very minor capacity until May 1939.^[78] Immediately after the camp was opened Johanna Langefeld^[78] became SS-Oberaufseherin (May 1939–March 1942) and Emma Zimmer became her deputy, (SS-Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin) (May 1939–October 1942); Maria Mandl also served during this period as an SS-Kommandoführerin (1939–1940)^[79] and Ober-Arrestführerin.^[78] of the camp bunker (1940–March 1942) while Gertrud Rabestein^[80] served as SS-Blockführerin of the Punishment Barrack and SS-Leiterin of the SS-Hundeführerinnen (1939–1941) and Gertrud Ida Schreiter^[81] served as an SS-Hundeführerin and SS-Kommandoführerin. After Langefeld was assigned to Auschwitz I during March 1942,^[82] Maria Mandl became SS-Oberaufseherin (March 1942–October 1942),^[83] followed by Johanna Langefeld, who once again served at Ravensbrück until the summer of 1943.^[83] During this period SS-Rapportführerinnen included Else Ehrich (1942)^[84] and Margot Dreschel,^[85] and Ober-arrestführerin Dorothea Binz, while Erika Boeddeker (1942),^[86] Edith Fräde (1942), Sophie Gode,^[87] and Wilhelmine Pielen (1942–1943) served as Blockführerinnen and/or Stellvertretende Blockführerinnen. With the creation of Abteilung IIIa, the Labor Department in Ravensbrück, several SS officers were placed in command there, along with SS-Arbeitsdienstführerin Rosel Laurenzen (later married Dürichen)^[88] and her assistant, SS-Arbeitseinsatzführerin Gertrud Schöber (later married Steisslinger);^[88] during 1943 Laurenzen was relieved from her post and Gertrud Ida Schreiter^[89] became SS-Arbeitsdienstführerin. After deputy Leader Emma Zimmer was called to Auschwitz II in October 1942, along with Mandl and Margot Dreschel, Margarete Gallinat became deputy Oberaufseherin under Langefeld.^[90] During the summer of 1943, Gallinat was moved as SS-Oberaufseherin to the Vught concentration camp in the Netherlands^[91] and Langefeld was arrested by the SS. Camp authorities promoted longtime Aufseherin Anne Klein-Plaubel to Chief Senior Overseer (Chef Oberaufseherin) of Ravensbrck during August 1943, assisted by Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Dorothea Binz and under them were SS-Scharführerin Christel Jankowsky,^[92] SS-Ober-arrestführerin Margarete Mewes, and SS-Blockführerinnen Henny Gottwitz^[93] (Block 3) and Ulla Jürß (1943–1944). During March 1944 Wilhelmine Pielen returned to Ravensbrück from Neubrandenburg and became assistant to Leader Binz until her transfer to Konigsberg-Neumark during October 1944.^[94] During this time, Arbeitsdienstführerin Gertrud Ida Schreiter (born Kaufmann) was the female Leader of the Labor Department, and her second-in-commands were Arbeitseinsatzführerinnen Greta Bösel (born Müller)^[95] –in 1944 and a certain Helevead (or Hollevaed) also served in Department IIIa; additionally, Helene Massar was a Kommandoführerin of the sewing shop at the camp until 1945.^[96] In the late autumn of 1944, Auschwitz-Birkenau Aufseherin Luise Brunner was installed as Chef Oberaufseherin at Ravensbrück.^[97] Under Brunner were Oberaufseherin Binz,^[94] Arbeitsdienstführerin Schreiter, Arbeitsdienstführerin Ilse Vettermann, Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Else Krippner, SS-Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Wilhelmine Pielen (after her return from Konigsberg-Neumark in February/March 1945-she replaced Krippner) and Arbeitseinsatzführerinnen Greta Bösel and Hollevaed-were around 144 SS-Aufseherinnen (SS-Overseers), including Report Overseers (Rapportführerinnen) Knack,^[98] Olga Nickel^[98] (who began service prior to the summer of 1942) and Hildegard Knop.^[98] The Kommandoführerinnen during 1944/1945 included Elisabeth Kammer,^[99] Emma Lankes,^[100] Helene Massar,^[101] and Hildegard Z^[102] while Blockfuhrerinnen were Ulla Jürß, Ruth Neudeck^[103] (summer-autumn 1944), Elfriede Mohnecke (spring 1945), Martha Krüger^[104] (of Barrack 23), Rosalie Leimböck (until autumn 1944), Margarete Steigüber,^[105] Emmi Steinbeck,^[106] and Frieda Wötzel-Drehmann (1944). Else Grabner was also the head of the female Ravensbrück subcamp as Oberaufseherin (Chief Wardress), then Lagerleiterin (Camp Leader).^[107] Binz and Boesel were convicted of war crimes and hanged on 2 May 1947.
• Rochlitz was headed by Erstaufseherin Marianne Essmann.^[108]
• In St. Lambrecht it was Jane Bernigau (1942–1944), while at Stutthof there was Oberaufseherin Anna Scharbert promoted to chief female overseer after her time in Ravensbruck, Majdanek and Auschwitz, while at Theresienstadt this was given to Hildegard Neumann and Oberaufseherin Elisabeth Schmidt in the 'Small Fortress' camp.^[109]
• Erstaufseherin Ruth Closius^[110] headed Uckermark along with her assistant, SS-Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Elfriede Mohnecke^[111] (January 1945–March 1945); Oberaufseherin Margarete Gallinat (Maria) (1943–1944) and later Oberaufseherin Gertrud Weiniger^[91] (summer–autumn 1944) oversaw Vught, Kommandofehrerin Susanne Hille was head female guard at Unterluess (or Vuterluss) (September 1944–April 1945). Oberaufseherin Fraulein Schneider, and later Anneliese Unger oversaw the Flossenbürg subcamp at Zwodau^[112] (June 1944–May 1945).
• Dzierżązna, Łódź Voivodeship SS Aufseherin Sydonia Bayer

Notes and References

1. Book: Kellenbach, Katharina von . The Mark of Cain: Guilt and Denial in the Post-War Lives of Nazi Perpetrators . 102. 2013-05-01 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-932375-3 . en.
2. Petzold, Elfriede, appeared on a 1 November 1947 list of female war criminals held in U.S. custody at Augsburg-Goegingen, Central Komitet, Juridisze Optejlung, Krigsfarbrecher Referat, as a guard in, Grüneberg-Vaivara (Estland).
3. There were, however, some exceptions. At least four overseers were of aristocratic origin: Annemie von der Huelst and Gertrud von Lonski at Neuengamme and Euphemia von Wielen and Ellen Freifrau von Kettler at Ravensbrück. Brown, Daniel Patrick (2002), The Camp Women. The Female Auxiliaries Who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, pp. 226, 242. Atglen, Pa.: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.;
4. Book: Feig, Konnilyn G. . Hitler's Death Camps: The Sanity of Madness . 1981 . Holmes & Meier . 0-8419-0676-9 . registration .
5. Book: Aroneanu, Eugene. Inside the Concentration Camps: Eyewitness Accounts of Life in Hitler's Death Camps. 1996. Greenwood Publishing Group. 0-275-95446-3.
6. Rachel Century, Das SS-Helferinnenkorps Royal Holloway, University of London.
7. Gerhard Rempel, The SS Female Assistance Corps (in) Hitler's Children: The Hitler Youth and the SS. UNC Press Books, 1989. .
8. Book: Kellenbach, Katharina von . The Mark of Cain: Guilt and Denial in the Post-War Lives of Nazi Perpetrators . 2013-05-01 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-932375-3 . en.
9. Book: Century, Rachel . Female Administrators of the Third Reich . 2017-08-10 . Springer . 978-1-137-54893-1 . 68 . en.
10. Sarti, Wendy Adele Marie (2011). Women and Nazis: Perpetrators of Genocide and Other Crimes During Hitler's Regime, 1933-1945. Academica Press, p. 35
11. Web site: Hamburg-Sasel Aufseherin U. E. undertook training courses in Neuengamme for 10 days during September 1944.. Media.offenses-archiv.de. 19 March 2022.
12. Hedwig Burkl, an SS-Aufseherin at Holleischen, Plauen, Mehltheuer and Venusberg-Gelenau, began her training at Zwodau on October 5, 1944. KZ Mehltheuer: Lippenstift statt Lebensmittel, Pascal Cziborra, p. 84
13. Web site: 1st Belsen Trial. Colin Russell. Leech. Bergenbelsen.co.uk.
14. Marie Larisch was enlisted by the Lorenz Company during August 1944 and subsequently trained and served at the factory and Gross-Rosen sub-camp in Ober Hohenelbe until April 1945. Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945, Volume I, Part A, Early Camps, Youth Camps, and Concentration Camps and Subcamps under the SS-Business Administration Main Office (WVHA), United States Holocaust Memorial Museum p. 776
15. According to the 1945 testimony of former Stutthof prisoner Zofia Jackowska, 150 German women from around Danzig were trained at the camp between early August and the middle of November 1944 and following their entry sixty remained in the main camp while the rest were assigned to its subcamps. Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945, Volume I, Part B, Early Camps, Youth Camps, and Concentration Camps and Subcamps under the SS-Business Administration Main Office (WVHA), United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, p. 1476
16. Elisabeth König went to the Mauthausen concentration camp on January 5, 1945 and was presumably admitted to her duties as an SS-Aufseherin. Im Gefolge der SS: Aufseherinnen des Frauen-KZ Ravensbrück: Begleitband zur Ausstellung, Simone Erpel, p. 177
17. Thea Therese Miesl, married Wallner, was trained at Ravensbrück for four weeks beginning on October 15, 1944 and afterwards assigned to a Dachau sub-camp in Kaufering, Bavaria. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 177
18. Ausbeutung, Vernichtung, Öffentlichkeit: Neue Studien Zur Nationalsozialistischen Lagerpolitik, p. 38
19. Web site: Eight German women and twenty female Dutch nationals served as SS-Aufseherinnen at the Vught/S Herzogenbusch concentration between May 1943 and September 1944; four of the German women, along with being Aufseherinnen also worked in the Kommandant's headquarters as secretaries. Pure.uva.nl. 19 March 2022.
20. Der Buchenwald-Report: Bericht über das Konzentrationslager Buchenwald bei Weimar, edited by David A. Hackett, p. 272
21. Ten female prisoners were selected from Ravensbrück and sent to the Dachau brothel along with one SS-Aufseherin. Four of those women were later selected by SS Dr. Rascher to aid in his medical experiments there. Rascher later wrote to SS Chief Heinrich Himmler: There ensued an enumeration of very curious conditions in the Ravensbrück camp. The conditions described were for the most part confirmed by the three other brothel girls and the woman overseer who accompanied them from Ravensbrück. Bruce L. Danto, John Bruhns, Austin H. Kutscher, The Human Side of Homicide (Westport, CT: Arlington House Publishers, 1978) p. 58
22. Twenty to thirty SS-Aufseherinnen accompanied a transport of over 2,000 women and children from Ravensbrück to Mauthausen during March 1945; most of the prisoners died during the journey or were killed or died shortly after arrival. David Wingeate Pike, Professor of Contemporary History and Politics David Wingeate Pike, Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, Horror on the Danube, p. 189
23. Elissa Mailänder, Female SS Guards and Workaday Violence: The Majdanek Concentration Camp
24. Andrew Rawson, Auschwitz: The Nazi Solution, p. 57
25. According to SS-Hauptsturmfuhrer Fritz Suhren, a leading SS officer at Ravensbruck, some 3,500 German women served as SS-Aufseherinnen at one time or another in the camp and/or in its complex of satellite camps. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Beautiful Beast: the Life & Crimes of SS-Aufseherin Irma Grese, p. 3
26. Web site: Dachau KZ: GROSS-ROSEN CONCENTRATION CAMP - PART 4/6. Dachaukz.blogspot.com. 14 February 2014.
27. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women, The Female Auxiliaries who assisted the SS in Running the Concentration Camp System
28. Kaethe Hoern began her training at Ravensbrück on July 26, 1944 while Hildegard K. became an SS-Aufseherin at the camp during June 1944. Bernd Klewitz, Die Arbeitssklaven der Dynamit Nobel, p. 298
29. Franciszek Piper, Teresa Świebocka, Danuta Czech, Auschwitz: Nazi Death Camp, p. 49
30. Nanda Herbermann, The Blessed Abyss: Inmate #6582 in Ravensbrück Concentration Camp for Women, p. 195
31. Lore Shelley, The Union Kommando in Auschwitz: the Auschwitz Munition Factory through the Eyes of its Former Slave Laborers, p. 365
32. Henry A. Zeiger, The Case Against Adolf Eichmann
33. Web site: 1st Belsen Trial, Affidavit 92. Colin Russell. Leech. Bergenbelsen.co.uk.
34. Wacław Długoborski, Franciszek Piper, Auschwitz, 1940–1945: The Establishment and Organization of the Camp, p. 286
35. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen, Volume 4, p. 529
36. Helga Radau, Nichts ist vergessen und niemand: aus der Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers in Barth, p. 34
37. Helga Radau, Nichts ist vergessen und niemand: aus der Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers in Barth, p. 27
38. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen ..., Volume 4, p. 529
39. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System
40. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 90
41. Web site: 1st Belsen Trial, Affidavit 87. Colin Russell. Leech. Bergenbelsen.co.uk.
42. Web site: 1st Belsen Trial, Affidavit 88. Colin Russell. Leech. Bergenbelsen.co.uk.
43. Web site: 1st Belsen Trial, 31. Colin Russell. Leech. Bergenbelsen.co.uk.
44. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager. Natzweiler, Groß-Rosen, Stutthof, Volume 6, p. 234
45. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager. Natzweiler, Groß-Rosen, Stutthof, Volume 6, p. 411
46. Isabell Sprenger, Gross-Rosen: ein Konzentrationslager in Schlesien, p. 271
47. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager. Natzweiler, Groß-Rosen, Stutthof, Volume 6, p. 254
48. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 231
49. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager. Natzweiler, Groß-Rosen, Stutthof, Volume 6, p. 271
50. Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945, Volume I, Part B, Early Camps, Youth Camps, and Concentration Camps and Subcamps under the SS-Business Administration Main Office (WVHA), United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, p. 1440
51. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen ..., Volume 7, p. 308
52. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen ..., Volume 4, p. 100
53. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen ..., Volume 4, p. 90
54. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen ..., Volume 4, p. 133
55. Pascal Cziborra, Frauen im KZ: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der historischen Forschung am Beispiel des KZ Flossenbürg und seiner Aussenlager, pp. 87–88
56. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 195
57. Jane (Gerda) Bernigau was an SS-Aufseherin in Lichtenburg, Ravensbrück, St. Lambrecht/Mauthausen, and Ravensbrück once again before becoming SS-Oberaufseherin at the Gross-Rosen central camp during the summer of 1944 and lastly at the Reichenau subcamp in early 1945 until the spring. Bella Guttermann, A Narrow Bridge to Life
58. Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager. Natzweiler, Groß-Rosen, Stutthof, Volume 6, p. 328
59. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager, Volume 6, p. 320
60. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 111
61. Web site: 1st Belsen Trial. Colin Russell. Leech. Bergenbelsen.co.uk.
62. Barbara Rylko-Bauer, A Polish Doctor in the Nazi Camps: My Mother's Memories of Imprisonment..., pp. 162–163
63. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p.226
64. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 99
65. Hans Ellger, Zwangsarbeit und weibliche Überlebensstrategien: die Geschichte der Frauenaussenlager des Konzentrationslagers Neuengamme 1944/45, p. 340
66. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 58
67. Web site: Gründe . 2017-05-20 . German.
68. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager, Volume 6, p. 367
69. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries who Assisted the SS in Running the Nazi Concentration Camp System, p. 77
70. While SS-Oberaufseherin Ehrich was on leave from Majdanek/Lublin, Weber filled in as Replacement Senior Overseer. Elissa Mailänder, Female SS Guards and Workaday Violence: The Majdanek Concentration Camp
71. While SS-Rapportfuhrerin/Stellvertretende Oberaufseherin Braunsteiner was on leave from Majdanek/Lublin, Knoblich filled in as Report Overseer. Elissa Mailänder, Female SS Guards and Workaday Violence: The Majdanek Concentration Camp
72. Wolfgang Benz, Barbara Distel, Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager, Volume 6, p. 393
73. Angelika Königseder, Der Ort des Terrors: Geschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager. Natzweiler, Groß-Rosen, Stutthof, Volume 6, p. 342
74. Jan Kosiński, Niemieckie obozy koncentracyjne i ich filie, p. 313
75. Filie obozu koncentracyjnego Gross-Rosen: informator, p. 53
76. Hartmut Müller, Die Frauen von Obernheide: jüdische Zwangsarbeiterinnen in Bremen 1944/1945
77. Halina Nelken, And Yet, I Am Here!, p. 216
78. Stefan Hördler, Dokumentations-und Gedenkort KZ Lichtenburg: Konzeption einer neuen, p. 132
79. Stefan Hördler, Dokumentations-und Gedenkort KZ Lichtenburg: Konzeption einer neuen, p. 132
80. Helga Schwarz, Gerda Szepansky, und dennoch blühten Blumen: Frauen-KZ Ravensbrück : Dokumente, Berichte, Gedichte und Zeichnungen vom Lageralltag 1939–1945, p. 62
81. Rainer SzczesiakNationalsozialistische Zwangslager im Raum Neubrandenburg, p. 217
82. Sarah Helm, Ravensbruck: Life and Death in Hitler's Concentration Camp for Women
83. Nanda Herbermann, The Blessed Abyss: Inmate #6582 in Ravensbrück Concentration Camp for Women
84. Kathrin Kompisch, Täterinnen: Frauen im Nationalsozialismus, p. 201
85. Anna Molnar Hegedus, As The Lilacs Bloomed
86. Jack Gaylord Morrison, Ravensbrück: Everyday Life in a Women's Concentration Camp, 1939–45, p. 92
87. Nanda Herbermann, Hester Baer, Elizabeth Roberts Baer, The Blessed Abyss: Inmate #6582 in Ravensbrück Concentration Camp for Women, p. 141
88. http://www.politische-bildung-brandenburg.de/.../pdf/ravensbrueck.pdf
89. Simone Erpel, Im Gefolge der SS: Aufseherinnen des Frauen-KZ Ravensbrück : Begleitband zur Ausstellung, p. 62
90. Web site: She is mentioned in 'Staffs of the German Concentration Camps, No. VII Ravensbrück (Women's Concentration Camp and Uckermark Sub-Camp)' as, 'GALINAT: S.S. woman. Deputy Supervisor since January, 1943. Accused of ill-treatment, causing death of prisoners, torture and murder.'. Legal-tools.org. 19 March 2022.
91. Web site: Mensen, macht en mentaliteiten achter prikkeldraad: een historischsociologische studie van concentratiekamp Vught (1943-1944). Pure.uva.nl. 19 March 2022.
92. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women, p. 127
93. Web site: ICC - Legal Tools record: Staffs of the German Concentration Camps (Officials Mentioned in UNWCC [...]]. Legal-tools.org.
94. Web site: ICC - Legal Tools record: Staffs of the German Concentration Camps (Officials Mentioned in UNWCC [...]]. Legal-tools.org.
95. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women, p. 46
96. Bernhard Strebel, Das KZ Ravensbrück: Geschichte eines Lagerkomplexes- p. 205
97. Bernhard Strebel, Das KZ Ravensbrück: Geschichte eines Lagerkomplexes, p. 72
98. Book: Johannes, Schwartz. Rezension zu: B. Strebel: Das KZ Ravensbrück. H-Soz-Kult. Kommunikation und Fachinformation für die Geschichtswissenschaften. 9783506701237. Schöningh. 2003.
99. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women, p.133
100. Barbara Degen, "Das Herz schlägt in Ravensbrück": die Gedenkkultur der Frauen, p. 169
101. Bernhard Strebel, Das KZ Ravensbrück: Geschichte eines Lagerkomplexes, p. 205
102. Ulrike Weckel, Edgar Wolfrum, "Bestien" und "Befehlsempfänger": Frauen und Männer in NS-Prozessen nach 1945, p. 127
103. Bernhard Strebel, Das KZ Ravensbrück: Geschichte eines Lagerkomplexes p. 469
104. Pia Gerber, Erwerbsbeteiligung von deutschen und ausländischen Frauen 1933–1945 in Deutschland: Entwicklungslinien und Aspekte politischer Steuerung der Frauenerwerbstätigkeit im Nationalsozialismus, p. 44
105. Daniel Patrick Brown, The Camp Women, p. 220
106. ‘STEINBECK, Emmi,’ was referenced as, ‘Wardress of Block 21 or 22. Very cruel.’ United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), Staffs of the German Concentration Camps (Officials Mentioned in UNWCC Records) No. VII Ravensbrück (Women's Concentration Camp and Uckermarck Sub-Camp)
107. http://www.fold3.com/page/286092756_female_guards_in_nazi_concentration_camps Female guards in Nazi concentration camps
108. Web site: Die Täter. Kz-rochlitz.jimdofree.com. 19 March 2022.
109. Web site: Theresienstadt Lexikon: Rundgang durch das Gestapogefängnis Kleine Festung. Ghetto-theresienstadt.info.
110. Simone Erpel, Zwischen Vernichtung und Befreiung: das Frauen-Konzentrationslager Ravensbrück in der letzten Kriegsphase
111. Kathrin Kompisch, Täterinnen: Frauen im Nationalsozialismus, p. 188
112. Norbert Aas, Sinti und Roma im KZ Flossenbürg und in seinen Aussenlagern Wolkenburg und Zwodau, p. 58