Extremes on Earth explained

This article lists extreme locations on Earth that hold geographical records or are otherwise known for their geophysical or meteorological superlatives. All of these locations are Earth-wide extremes; extremes of individual continents or countries are not listed.

Latitude and longitude

See also: List of northernmost items and List of southernmost items.

Northernmost

• The northernmost point of land is the northern tip of Kaffeklubben Island, north of Greenland, which lies slightly north of Cape Morris Jesup, Greenland . Various shifting gravel bars lie farther north, the most famous being Oodaaq. There have been other islands more northern such as 83-42 and ATOW1996 but they have not been confirmed as permanent.

Southernmost

• The southernmost continental point of land outside Antarctica is in South America at Cape Froward, Magallanes Region, Chile .
• The southernmost point of (liquid) water is a bay on the Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf along the coast of Antarctica, about south of Berkner Island.
  • The southernmost point of ocean is located on the Gould Coast .^[1]
  • The southernmost point of open ocean is in the Bay of Whales, also part of the Ross Sea, at 78°30'S, at the edge of the Ross Ice Shelf.^[2]
    • The southernmost island is considered to be Deverall Island, near the Shackleton Coast, surrounded by the Ross Ice Shelf although there is an island in Lake Vostok but it is currently under ice.^[3]

Easternmost and westernmost

• The easternmost and westernmost points on Earth, based on the east–west standard for describing longitude, can be found anywhere along the 180th meridian, which passes through the Arctic, Pacific, and Southern Oceans, as well as parts of Siberia (including Wrangel Island), Antarctica, and three islands of Fiji (Vanua Levu's eastern peninsula, the middle of Taveuni, and the western part of Rabi Island).
  • Using instead the path of the International Date Line (which is not a straight line), the westernmost point on land is Attu Island, Alaska, and the easternmost point on land is Caroline Island, Kiribati.

Longest grid lines

Along constant latitude

• The longest continuous east–west distance on land is along the latitude 48°24'53"N, from the west coast of France (Pointe de Corsen,) through Central Europe, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China, to a point on the east coast of Russia .
• The longest continuous east–west distance at sea is along the latitude 55°59'S, south of Cape Horn, South America.
  • The longest continuous east–west distance at sea between two continents is along the latitude 18°39'12"N, from the coast of Hainan, China across the Pacific Ocean to the coast of Michoacán, Mexico .

Along constant longitude

• The longest continuous north–south distance on land is along the meridian 99°1'30"E, from the northern tip of Siberia in the Russian Federation, through Mongolia, China, and Myanmar, to a point on the south coast of Thailand .
  • The longest in Africa is along the meridian 20°12'E, from the north coast of Libya, through Chad, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Namibia, and Botswana, to the south coast of South Africa .
  • The longest in South America is the length along the meridian 70°2'W, from the north coast of Venezuela, through Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, to the southern tip of Argentina .
  • The longest in North America is along the meridian 97°52'30"W, from northern Canada, through the United States, to southern Mexico .
• The longest continuous north–south distance at sea is along the meridian 34°45'45"W, from the coast of Eastern Greenland across the Atlantic Ocean to the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, on the coast of Antarctica . The longest in the Pacific Ocean is along the meridian 172°8'30"W, from the coast of Siberia to the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica .
• The meridian that crosses the greatest total distance on land (disregarding intervening bodies of water) is still to be determined. It is likely located in the vicinity of 22°E, which is the longest integer meridian that fits that criterion, crossing a total of of land through Europe, Africa, and Antarctica . More than 65% of this meridian's length is located on land. The next six longest integer meridians by total distance over land are, in order:
  • 23°E: through Europe, Africa, and Antarctica
  • 27°E: through Europe, Asia, Africa, and Antarctica
  • 25°E: through Europe, Africa, and Antarctica
  • 26°E: through Europe, Africa, and Antarctica
  • 24°E: through Europe, Africa, and Antarctica
  • 28°E: through Europe, Asia, and Africa

Along any geodesic

These are the longest straight lines that can be drawn between any two points on the surface of the Earth and remain exclusively over land or water; the points need not lie on the same line of latitude or longitude.

• The longest continuous straight-line (great circle) path over land is long and spans between the West African coast near Greenville, Liberia and a peninsula about northeast of Wenzhou, China, passing over the Suez Canal.^[4]
  • The longest continuous straight-line land distance solely within continental Africa is, along a line that begins just east of Tangier, Morocco, and ends east of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. This line passes through Morocco, Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa.
  • The longest continuous straight-line land distance solely within continental Asia is, along a line that begins on the Indian coast near Kanyakumari and ends at the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Russia. This line passes through India, Nepal, China, Mongolia, and Russia.
  • The longest continuous straight-line land distance solely within continental Europe (defining the Ural Mountains as the border between Europe and Asia) is, along a line that begins at Cape St. Vincent, Portugal, and ends at the Urals, near the town of Perm, Russia. This line passes through Portugal, Spain, France, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and Russia.
  • The longest continuous straight-line land distance solely within continental North America is, along a line that begins at Point Hope, Alaska, United States, and ends southwest of the town of Salina Cruz, Mexico. This line passes through Alaska, Canada, the contiguous United States, and Mexico.
  • The longest continuous straight-line land distance solely within continental South America is, along a line that begins northeast of Puerto Cumarebo, Venezuela, and ends south of the town of Punta Arenas, Chile. This line passes through Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Chile, and Argentina.
  • The longest continuous straight-line land distance solely within continental Australia is, along a line that begins at the southern end of Cape Range National Park in Western Australia and ends at the town of Byron Bay in New South Wales.
• There are several possible candidates for the longest continuous straight-line distance in any direction at sea, as there are many possible ways to travel along a great circle for more than the antipodic length of . Some examples of such routes would be:
  • From the south coast of Balochistan province somewhere near Port of Karachi, Pakistan across the Arabian Sea, southwest through the Indian Ocean, near Comoros, passing Namaete Canyon, near the South African coast, across the South Atlantic Ocean, then west across Cape Horn, then northwest across the Pacific Ocean, near Easter Island, passing the antipodal point near Emlilia island, through the South Bering Sea and ending somewhere on the northeast coast of Kamchatka, near Ossora . This route is long.^[5] This route was confirmed to be the longest (at about) given map data at a level of resolution.^{[6] [7]}
  • From the south coast of Hormozgan province, Iran across the Gulf of Oman, southeast across the Arabian Sea, passing south of Australia and New Zealand, near the Antarctic coast, then northeast across the South Pacific Ocean, passing the antipodal point and ending on the southwest coast of Mexico somewhere near Ciudad Lázaro Cárdenas . This route is long.^[8]
  • From Invercargill, New Zealand across Cape Horn, then off the coast of Brazil close to Recife, passing north of Cape Verde, passing the antipodal point and ending somewhere on the southwest coast of Ireland . This route is long.^[9]

Along any diameter (straight line passing through the centre of the Earth)

As distinct from geodesic lines, which appear straight only when projected onto the spheroidal surface of the Earth (i.e. arcs of great circles), straight lines passing through the Earth's centre can be constructed through the interior of the Earth between almost any two points on the surface of the Earth (some extreme topographical situations such as overhanging cliffs being the rare exceptions). A line projected from the summit of Cayambe in Ecuador (see highest points) through the axial centre of the Earth to its antipode on the island of Sumatra results in the longest diameter that can be produced anywhere through the Earth. As the variable circumference of the Earth approaches 25000miles, such a maximum "diameter" or "antipodal" line would be on the order of 8000miles long.

Elevation

See also: Lists of highest points, List of elevation extremes by region and List of elevation extremes by country.

Highest points

• The highest point on Earth's surface measured from sea level is the summit of Mount Everest, on the border of Nepal and China. While measurements of its height vary slightly, the elevation of its peak was most recently established in 2020 by the Nepali and Chinese authorities as above sea level.^[10] The summit was first reached probably by Sir Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay Sherpa of Nepal in 1953.
• The point farthest from Earth's centre is the summit of Chimborazo^[11] in Ecuador, at from Earth's centre; the peak's elevation relative to sea level is . Because Earth is an oblate spheroid rather than a perfect sphere, it is wider at the equator and narrower toward each pole. Therefore, the summit of Chimborazo, which is near the Equator, is farther away from Earth's centre than the summit of Mount Everest is; the latter is closer, at from Earth's centre. Peru's Huascarán (at) contends closely with Chimborazo, though the former is a mere closer to the Earth's centre.
• The fastest point on Earth or, in other words, the point farthest from Earth's rotational axis is the summit of Cayambe^[12] in Ecuador, which rotates around Earth's axis at a speed of and is from the axis. Like Chimborazo, which is the fourth-fastest peak at, Cayambe is close to the Equator and takes advantage of the oblate spheroid figure of Earth. More important, however, Cayambe's proximity to the Equator means that the majority of its distance from the Earth's centre contributes to Cayambe's distance from the Earth's axis.

Highest geographical features

• The highest volcano is Ojos del Salado on the Argentina–Chile border. It has the highest summit,, of any volcano on Earth.
• The highest natural lake is an unnamed crater lake on Ojos del Salado at,^[13] on the Argentina side. Another candidate was Lhagba Pool on the northeast slopes of Mount Everest, Tibet, at an elevation of, which has since dried up.^[14]
• The highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca, on the border of Bolivia and Peru in the Andes, at .
• The highest glacier is the Khumbu Glacier on the southwest slopes of Mount Everest in Nepal, beginning on the west side of Lhotse at an elevation of .^[15]
• The highest river is disputed; one candidate from many possibilities is the Ating Ho, which flows into the Aong Tso (Hagung Tso), a large lake in Tibet, and has an elevation of about at its source at . Another very large and high river is the Yarlung Tsangpo or upper Brahmaputra River in Tibet, whose main stem, the Maquan River, has its source at about above sea level at .^[16] Above these elevations, there are no constantly flowing rivers since the temperature is almost always below freezing.
• The highest island is one of a number of islands in the Orba Co lake in Tibet, at an elevation of .^[17]

Highest points attainable by transportation

• The highest point accessible
  • by land vehicle is an elevation of on Ojos del Salado in Chile, which was reached by the Chilean duo of Gonzalo and Eduardo Canales Moya on 21 April 2007 with a modified Suzuki Samurai, setting the high-altitude record for a four-wheeled vehicle.
  • by road (dead end) is on a mining road to the summit of Aucanquilcha in Chile, which reaches an elevation of . It was once usable by 20-tonne mining trucks.^[18] The road is no longer usable.
  • by road (mountain pass) is disputed; there are a number of competing claims for this title due to the definition of "motorable pass" (i.e. a surfaced road or one simply passable by a vehicle):
    • The highest asphalted road is the single-lane road to Umling La, located west of Demchok in Ladakh, India, which reaches ("19,300 feet" according to a Border Roads Organisation sign there that recognizes it as the "World's Highest Motorable Pass").^{[19] [20]} Before the asphalting of the road over Umling La, the highest asphalted road was Tibet's Semo La pass at . It is used by trucks and buses regularly.^[21] The Ticlio pass, on the Central Road of Peru, is the highest surfaced road in the Americas, at an elevation of .
    • The highest unsurfaced road has several different claimants. All are unsurfaced or gravel roads including Mana Pass, between India and Tibet, which is crossed by a gravel road reaching . The heavily trafficked Khardung La in Ladakh lies at . A possibly motorable gravel road crosses Marsimik La in Ladakh at .
  • by train is Tanggula Pass, located on the Qinghai–Tibet (Qingzang) Railway in the Tanggula Mountains of Qinghai/Tibet, China, at . The Tanggula railway station is the world's highest railway station at . Before the Qingzang Railway was built, the highest railway ran between Lima and Huancayo in Peru, reaching at Ticlio.^[22]
  • by oceangoing vessel is a segment of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal between the Hilpoltstein and Bachhausen locks in Bavaria, Germany. The locks artificially raise the surface level of the water in the canal to above mean sea level, higher than any other lock system in the world, making it the highest point currently accessible by oceangoing commercial watercraft.

• The highest commercial airport is Daocheng Yading Airport, Sichuan, China, at .^[23] The proposed Nagqu Dagring Airport in Tibet, if built, will be higher at .
• The highest helipad is Sonam, Siachen Glacier, India, at a height of above sea level.^[24]
• The highest permanent human settlement is La Rinconada, Peru,, in the Peruvian Andes.
• The farthest road from the Earth's centre is the Road to Carrel Hut in the Ecuadorian Andes, at an elevation of above sea level and a distance of from the centre of the Earth.^[25]

Lowest points

Lowest natural points

See also: List of places on land with elevations below sea level.

• The deepest point below the ocean's atmospheric surface is Challenger Deep, at the bottom of the Mariana Trench, below sea level.^[26] Jacques Piccard and U.S. Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh first reached Challenger Deep in 1960 aboard the bathyscaphe Trieste, followed by filmmaker James Cameron in 2012 aboard Deepsea Challenger. Between 2020 and 2022, DSV Limiting Factor made 19 dives to Challenger Deep, carrying with it 19 further visitors.^{[27] [28]}
• The deepest known cave is in the Veryovkina Cave in Georgia, where the altitude difference between the cave's entrance and the deepest explored point (the maximum depth) is 2212abbr=NaNabbr=, reached in 2019 by a Perovo-speleo team.^[29]
• The lowest point on land not covered by liquid water is the canyon under Denman Glacier in Antarctica, with the bedrock being below sea level.^{[30] [31]}

• The lowest point on dry land is the shore of the Dead Sea, shared by Israel and Jordan, below sea level. As the Dead Sea waters are receding, the water surface level drops more than 1m (03feet) per year.^[32]
• The point on the atmospheric surface closest to the Earth's centre (interpreted as a natural surface of the land or sea that is accessible by a person) is the surface of the Arctic Ocean at the Geographic North Pole .
  • The point on the surface of Earth's crust closest to the Earth's centre (interpreted as a land surface or sea floor) is the bottom of Litke Deep, in the Arctic Ocean, at from Earth's centre; the deep's depth relative to sea level is . Because Earth is an oblate spheroid rather than a perfect sphere, it is wider at the equator and narrower toward each pole. Therefore, the bottom of Litke Deep, which is near the North Pole, is closer to Earth's centre than the bottom of Challenger Deep is; the latter is further, at from Earth's centre.^[33] Molloy Deep, also in Arctic Ocean (at) from Earth's centre contends closely with Litke Deep, the difference from Earth's centre being just .
  • The point on the ocean surface farthest below sea level is located in the Indian Ocean, about southwest of India, the Indian Ocean Geoid Low, about below the global mean sea level.

Lowest artificial points

• The lowest point underground ever reached was deep (SG-3 at the Kola Superdeep Borehole, which has since been enclosed).
• The lowest human-sized point underground is ^[34] below ground at the TauTona Mine, Carletonville, South Africa.
• The lowest (from sea level) artificially made point with open sky may be the Hambach surface mine, Germany, which reaches a depth of below sea level.
• The lowest (from surface) artificially made point with open sky may be the Bingham Canyon Open Pit Copper Mine, Utah, United States, at a depth of below surface level.
• The lowest point underwater is the -deep (as measured from the subsea wellhead) oil and gas well drilled on the Tiber Oil Field in the Gulf of Mexico. The wellhead of this well is an additional underwater, for a total distance of as measured from sea level.^[35]

Lowest points attainable by transportation

• The lowest point accessible:
  • by road, excluding roads in mines, is any of the roads alongside the Dead Sea in Israel and Jordan, which are the lowest on Earth at below sea level.
    • The lowest undersea highway tunnel is the Ryfast tunnel in Norway, at below sea level.
  • by train, excluding tracks in mines, is located in the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, at below sea level. For comparison, the undersea Channel Tunnel between England and France reaches a depth of below sea level.
  • by ship, is located in the Indian Ocean, about southwest of India, the Indian Ocean Geoid Low, about below the global mean sea level.^[36]
  • Some mines have roads accessible from outside or rail tracks, located more than two thousand metres below sea level, for example in some South African gold mines.
• The lowest railroad station was formerly the Japanese Yoshioka-Kaitei Station, at below sea level, but it closed in 2014. The lowest railroad station not inside a tunnel is below sea level, at Beit She'an railway station in Israel.
• The lowest airfield is the Bar Yehuda Airfield, near Masada, Israel, at below sea level.
• The lowest international airport is Atyrau Airport, near Atyrau, Kazakhstan, at below sea level, in the basin of the Caspian Sea.
• The lowest major city is Baku, Azerbaijan, located below sea level, which makes it the lowest-lying national capital in the world and also the largest city in the world located below sea level.

Table of extreme elevations and air temperatures by continent

See also: List of elevation extremes by region and List of weather records.

Continent	Elevation (height above/below sea level)			Air temperature (recorded)^[37]
	Highest		Lowest	Highest	Lowest
	5893m (19,334feet) Kilimanjaro, Tanzania^[38]		NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) Lake Assal, Djibouti^[39]	(disputed) Kebili, French Tunisia 7 July 1931	Ifrane, French Morocco 11 February 1935
	4892m (16,050feet) Vinson Massif^[40]		-50m (-150feet)^[41] Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills (compare the deepest ice section below)	Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station 9 February 2020	Vostok Station 21 July 1983
	8848.86m (29,031.69feet) Mount Everest, Tibet–Nepal Border ^[42]		NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) Dead Sea, Israel–Jordan–Palestine^[43]	<	--(disputed?!) rather: 53.9°C / 129°F Mitribah, Kuwait, on July 21, 2016--> Tirat Zvi, Israel (then in the British Mandate of Palestine) 21 June 1942	Measured Oymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union 6 February 1933^[44] ^[45]
				<	--(disputed?!)--> Ahvaz Airport, Iran 29 June 2017^[46]	Extrapolated Oymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union 26 January 1926^[47]
	5642m (18,510feet) Mount Elbrus, Russian Federation^[48]		NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) Caspian Sea shore, Russian Federation^[49]	48.8 °C(119.8 °F)Floridia, Italy 11 August 2021	Ust-Shchuger, Soviet Union 31 December 1978
	6190.5m (20,310feet) Denali (Mount McKinley), Alaska, United States^[50]		NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) Badwater Basin, California, United States^[51]	134.1F Furnace Creek (then named Greenland Ranch), Death Valley, California, United States 10 July 1913 (disputed while still official, but up to 54.4 °C (129.9 °F)^[52] has also been recorded there in 2020 and 2021, not yet verified by WMO; and 54C which is verified.) <	-- The WMO has stated they stand by the 1913 record pending any future investigations. -->	-69.6 °C (-93.3 °F)Summit Camp, Greenland 22 December 1991
	4884m (16,024feet) Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid), Indonesia (compare Mount Wilhelm, Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mount Kosciuszko)^[53]		NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) Lake Eyre, South Australia, Australia^[54]	Oodnadatta, South Australia, Australia 2 January 1960 Onslow, Western Australia, Australia 13 January 2022^[55]	Ranfurly, Otago, New Zealand 17 July 1903
	6962m (22,841feet) Aconcagua, Mendoza, Argentina^[56]		NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) Laguna del Carbón, Argentina^[57]	Rivadavia, Salta Province, Argentina 11 December 1905	Sarmiento, Chubut Province, Argentina 1 June 1907
A. Height above sea level is the usual choice of definition for elevation. The point farthest away from the centre of the Earth, however, is Chimborazo in Ecuador (6267m (20,561feet)). This is due to the Earth's oblate spheroid shape, with points near the Equator being farther out from the centre than those at the poles. B. All temperatures from the World Meteorological Organization unless noted. C. The former record of recorded at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922 was ruled no longer valid by the WMO due to mistakes made in the recording process.^[58] The 1913 reading is, however, itself controversial, and a measurement of at Furnace Creek on 30 June 2013 is undisputed, especially since the same or almost the same temperature has been recorded several times in the 21st century in the same and other places. E. Temperatures greater than in Spain and Portugal were recorded in 1881, but the standard with which they were measured and the accuracy of the thermometers used are unknown; therefore, they are not considered official. Unconfirmed reports also indicate that a set of Spanish stations may have hit during the 2003 heat wave.^[59] F. Greenland is considered by the World Meteorological Organization to be part of WMO region 6 (Europe).^[60] ^[61] G. A temperature of was recorded in Cloncurry, Queensland on 16 January 1889 under non-standard exposure conditions and is therefore not considered official.^[62] ^[63]

Humans and biogeography

In contrast to places with the highest density of life, like terrestrial^[64] tropical regions, and beside local extreme conditions, which might only be overcome by extremophiles, there are areas of extreme low amounts of life.

Next to terrestrial lifeless areas like the Antarctic desert's McMurdo Dry Valleys and its Don Juan Pond, the most lifeless area in the ocean studied (other than the more general dead zones) is the South Pacific Gyre,^[65] corresponding to the oceanic pole of inaccessibility.

The oceanic pole of inaccessibility is also the antipodal area of the human center of population which lies today around southern Central Asia. Similarly the world's economic center of gravity has been drifting since antiquity from Central Asia to Northern Europe and contemporarily back to Central Asia.^[66] The related centre of gravity of the worlds carbon emission has shifted from Britain during the Industrial Revolution to the Atlantic, back again and contemporarily into Central Asia.^[67]

Remoteness

Poles of inaccessibility

See main article: Pole of inaccessibility. Each continent has its own continental pole of inaccessibility, defined as the place on the continent that is farthest from any ocean. Similarly, each ocean has its own oceanic pole of inaccessibility, defined as the place in the ocean that is farthest from any land.

Continental

• The most distant point from an ocean is the Eurasian Pole of Inaccessibility (or "EPIA"), in China's Xinjiang region near the border with Kazakhstan. Calculations have shown that this point, located in the Dzoosotoyn Elisen Desert, is from the nearest coastline. The nearest settlement to the EPIA is Suluk at, about to the east. A 2007 study suggests that the historical calculation of the EPIA failed to recognize the point where the Gulf of Ob joins the Arctic Ocean, and proposes instead that varying definitions of coastline could result in other locations for the EPIA:
  • EPIA1, somewhere between and, is about from the nearest ocean.
  • EPIA2, somewhere between and, is about from the nearest ocean.

If adopted, this would place the final EPIA roughly closer to the ocean than the point that is currently agreed upon.^[68] Coincidentally, EPIA1, or EPIA2, and the most remote of the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility (specifically, the point in the South Pacific Ocean that is farthest from land) are similarly remote; EPIA1 is less than closer to the ocean than the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility is to land.

• The continental poles of inaccessibility for the other continents are as follows:
  • Africa:,^[68] close to the tripoint of the Central African Republic, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo
  • Australia: either,^[69] or,^[68] near Papunya, Northern Territory
  • North America:,^[68] between Kyle, South Dakota and Allen, South Dakota, United States.
  • South America:,^[68] near Arenápolis, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Oceanic

• The most distant point from land is the Pacific pole of inaccessibility (also called "Point Nemo", in a region known as the spacecraft cemetery), which lies in the South Pacific Ocean at, about from the nearest land (equidistant from Ducie Island in the Pitcairn Islands to the north, Motu Nui off Rapa Nui to the northeast, and Maher Island off Siple Island near Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica, to the south).^[70] The centre of the Pacific Ocean and the Water Hemisphere lie west to it, closer to Oceania, off the coast of Kiribati at and New Zealand at respectively.

Other places considered the most remote

• The most remote island is Bouvet Island, a small, uninhabited island in the South Atlantic Ocean that is a dependency of Norway. It lies at coordinates . The nearest land is the uninhabited Queen Maud Land, Antarctica (also claimed by Norway), over to the south. The nearest inhabited lands are Gough Island, away, Tristan da Cunha, away, and the coast of South Africa, away.
• The title for most remote inhabited island or archipelago (the farthest away from any other permanently inhabited place) depends on how the question is interpreted. If the south Atlantic island Tristan da Cunha (population about 300) and its dependency Gough Island (with a small staffed research post), which are from each other, are considered part of the same archipelago, or if Gough Island is not counted because it has no permanent residents, then Tristan da Cunha is the world's most remote inhabited island/archipelago: the main island, also called Tristan da Cunha, is from the island Saint Helena, from South Africa, and from South America. It is away from uninhabited Bouvet Island. However, if Gough and Tristan da Cunha are considered separately, they disqualify each other, and the most remote inhabited island is Easter Island in the South Pacific Ocean, which lies from Pitcairn Island (about 50 residents in 2013), from Rikitea on the island of Mangareva (the nearest town with a population over 500), and from the coast of Chile (the nearest continental point and the country of which Easter Island is part). The Kerguelen Islands in the southern Indian Ocean are another contender, lying from the small Alfred Faure scientific station in Île de la Possession, but otherwise more than from the coast of Madagascar (the nearest permanently inhabited place), northwest of the uninhabited Heard Island and McDonald Islands (both a part of Australia), and from the non-permanent scientific station located in Île Amsterdam.
• Remote cities
  • The most remote city with a population in excess of one million from the nearest city with a population in excess of one million is Auckland, New Zealand. The nearest city of comparable size or greater is Sydney, Australia, away.^[71]
  • The most remote city with a population in excess of one million from the nearest city with a population above 100,000 is Perth, Australia, located ^[72] away from Adelaide, Australia.
  • The most remote city with a population in excess of 100,000 from the nearest city with a population in excess of 100,000 is Honolulu, Hawaii, United States. The nearest city of comparable size or greater is San Francisco, away.^[73]
  • The most remote national capitals are Wellington, New Zealand, and Canberra, Australia, which are apart from each other and neither is closer to another capital.
• The most remote airport in the world from another airport is Mataveri International Airport (IPC) on Easter Island, which has a single runway for military and public use. It is located from Totegegie Airport (GMR; very few flights) in the Gambier Islands, French Polynesia and from Santiago, Chile (SCL; a fairly large airport). In comparison, the airport at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station (NZSP) is not very remote at all, being located only from Williams Field (NZWD) near Ross Island.^[74]

Farthest-apart cities

The pairs of cities (with a population over 100,000) with the greatest distance between them (antipodes) are:^[75]

1. Xinghua, China to Rosario, Argentina: ^[76]
2. Lu'an, China to Río Cuarto, Argentina: ^[77]
3. Subang Jaya, Malaysia to Cuenca, Ecuador: ^[78]
4. Shanghai, China to Concordia, Argentina: ^[79]
5. Xi'an, China to Rancagua, Chile: ^[80]
6. Rui'an, China to Resistencia, Argentina: ^[81]
7. Yantai, China to Tandil, Argentina: ^[82]
8. Lichuan, China to Coquimbo, Chile: ^[83]
9. Bandung, Indonesia to Piedecuesta, Colombia: ^[84]
10. Salamanca, Spain to Lower Hutt, New Zealand: ^[85]

The pair of airports with scheduled flights having the greatest distance between them are Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II International Airport, which serves Palembang, Indonesia, and Benito Salas Airport, which serves Neiva, Colombia, located about 10,819 nautical miles (20,037 km) apart.^[86] See longest flights for the longest non-stop flights.

Centre

See main article: Geographical center of Earth. Since the Earth is a spheroid, its centre (the core) is thousands of kilometres beneath its crust. Still, there have been attempts to define various "centrepoints" on the Earth's surface.

• The centre of the standard geographic model as viewed on a traditional world map is the point 0°, 0° (the coordinates of zero degrees latitude by zero degrees longitude), which is located in the Atlantic Ocean about south of Accra, Ghana, in the Gulf of Guinea. It lies at the intersection of the Equator and the Prime Meridian, is marked with a buoy and sometimes called Null Island. However, the selection of the Prime Meridian as the 0° longitude meridian depended on cultural and historical factors and is therefore geographically arbitrary (any of the Earth's meridians could, in principle, be defined as 0° longitude); consequently, the position of the "Null Island" centrepoint is also arbitrary.
• The centre of population, the place to which there is the shortest average route for every individual human being in the world, could also be considered a "centre of the world". This point is located in the north of the Indian subcontinent, although the precise location has never been calculated and is constantly shifting due to changes in the distribution of the human population across the planet.

Geophysical extremes

Tallest mountain

• Mauna Kea, tallest mountain from base-to-peak, with a dry prominence of 9330m (30,610feet) and a wet prominence above sea level of 4207.3m (13,803.5feet).
• Denali, tallest mountain from base-to-peak on land, measuring 5500meter.^[87]

Greatest vertical drop

Greatest purely vertical drop	Mount Thor, Auyuittuq National Park, Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada (summit elevation 1675m (5,495feet))^[88] ^[89]
Greatest nearly vertical drop	1340m (4,400feet) Trango Towers, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan (summit elevation 6286m (20,623feet))
Greatest mountain face
Greatest ocean cliff	Kermadec Trench, with cliffs around 8000m (26,000feet) tall

Subterranean

Deepest mine below ground level	4000m (13,000feet) Mponeng Gold Mine, Gauteng Province, South Africa
Deepest mine below sea level	2733m (8,967feet) below sea level Kidd Mine, Ontario, Canada
Deepest open-pit mine below ground level	1200m (3,900feet) Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah, United States
Deepest open-pit mine below sea level	293m (961feet) below sea level Tagebau Hambach, Germany
Deepest cave (measured from the entrance)	2204m (7,231feet) Veryovkina, Arabika Massif, Abkhazia, Georgia^[90]
Deepest pitch (single vertical drop)	1026m (3,366feet) Tian Xing Cave, China^[91]
	12261m (40,226feet) Kola Superdeep Borehole, Russia^[92]
Deepest borehole by depth below sea level	11944m (39,186feet) (10,685 m well at 1,259 m deep seabed) The Tiber well, Gulf of Mexico, United States ^[93]

Greatest oceanic depths

	8376m (27,480feet)^[94] Milwaukee Deep (within the Brownson Deep), Puerto Rico Trench
	5550m (18,210feet)^[95] Molloy Deep, Fram Strait
	7192m (23,596feet)^[96] Sunda Trench
	5267m (17,280feet) Calypso Deep, Hellenic Trench
	10928m (35,853feet)^[97] Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench^[98]
	7433.6m (24,388.5feet)^[99] South Sandwich Trench (southernmost portion, at -60.4743°N -57.32°W)

Deepest ice

Ice sheets on land, but having the base below sea level. Places under ice are not considered to be on land.

Denman Subglacial Trench	NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet)	Antarctica
	-1512m (-4,961feet)^[100]	Greenland, Denmark

Meteorological extremes

Coldest and hottest inhabited places on Earth

Hottest inhabited place	Dallol, Ethiopia (Amharic: ዳሎል), whose annual mean temperature was recorded from 1960 to 1966 as .^[101] The average daily maximum temperature during the same period was .^[102]
Coldest inhabited place	Oymyakon (Russian: Оймяко́н), a rural locality (selo) in Oymyakonsky District of the Sakha Republic, the Russian Federation, has the coldest monthly mean, with -46.4C the average temperature in January, the coldest month. Eureka, Nunavut, Canada has the lowest annual mean temperature at .^[103]
	The South Pole and some other places in Antarctica are colder and are populated year-round, but almost everyone stays less than a year and could be considered visitors, not inhabitants.

Ground temperatures

Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 °C.^[104] A ground temperature of 84 °C (183.2 °F) has been recorded in Port Sudan, Sudan.^[105] A ground temperature of 93.9 °C (201 °F) was recorded in Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, United States on 15 July 1972; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded.^[106] The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 °C for dry, darkish soils of low thermal conductivity.^[107]

Satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009, taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite, found a maximum temperature of 70.7 °C (159.3 °F), which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert, Iran. The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2009). These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature.

Satellite measurements of the surface temperature of Antarctica, taken between 1982 and 2013, found a coldest temperature of −93.2 °C (−136 °F) on 10 August 2010, at . Although this is not comparable to an air temperature, it is believed that the air temperature at this location would have been lower than the official record lowest air temperature of −89.2 °C.^{[108] [109]}

Extreme points by region

Afro-Eurasia

• Extreme points of Afro-Eurasia
  • Africa

• • Eurasia
    • Asia

• • • Europe

The Americas

• Extreme points of the Americas
  • North America

• • • Central America

• • • The Caribbean

• • South America

Oceania

• Extreme points of Oceania

Antarctica

• Extreme points of Antarctica

Arctic

• Extreme points of the Arctic

See also

• Geographical centre
• Lists of extreme points

Latitude and longitude

• List of northernmost items (city, capital, island, etc.)
• List of southernmost items (city, capital, island, etc.)
• List of countries by northernmost point
• List of countries by southernmost point
• Northernmost settlements
• Southernmost settlements

Elevation

• List of elevation extremes by country
• List of elevation extremes by region
• List of highest towns by country
• Extreme points of the Commonwealth of Nations

Geophysical features

• List of deepest caves
• List of deepest oceanic trenches
• List of deserts by area
• List of highest mountains on Earth
  • List of volcanoes by elevation
• List of impact craters on Earth
• List of islands by area
• List of lakes by area
• List of lakes by depth
• List of rivers by length
• List of waterfalls by height

Meteorology and climate

• List of weather records

Beyond Earth

• List of Solar System extremes
• List of extrasolar planet extremes

External links

• United States National Climatic Data Center
• AWOW Top List World Top 10 Hottest Places

Notes and References

1. http://geonames.usgs.gov/apex/f?p=gnispq:5:0::NO::P5_ANTAR_ID:5881 Gould Coast
2. Web site: Bay of Whales - former bay, Antarctica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
3. News: D . Whitehouse . Russia to resume Vostok drilling . 25 May 2005 . BBC News . 28 January 2011 .
4. http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=5%B02%26%238242%3B51.59%26%238243%3BN+9%B07%26%238242%3B23.26%26%238243%3BW+-+28%B017%26%238242%3B7.68%26%238243%3BN+121%B038%26%238242%3B17.31%26%238243%3BE%0D%0A&MS=bm&DU=mi (Map from gcmap)
5. http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=25%B025%27N+66%B025%27E+-+59%B038%27S+16%B036%27W+-+25%B025%27S+113%B035%27W+-+59%B038%27N+163%B024%27E%0D%0A (Map from gcmap)
6. Chabukswar . Rohan. Mukherjee. Kushal. Longest Straight Line Paths on Water or Land on the Earth. 9 April 2018. math.HO. 1804.07389.
7. Web site: This ocean path will take you on the longest straight-line journey on Earth. David Shultz . 30 April 2018. Science Magazine.
8. http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=25%B035%27N+58%B022%27E+-+17%B057%27S+78%B003%27E+-+25%B035%27S+121%B038%27W+-+17%B057%27N+101%B057%27W (Map from gcmap)
9. http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=46%B037%27S+168%B059%27E+-+52%B009%27S+173%B026%27E+-+46%B037%27N+11%B001%27W+-+52%B009%27N+6%B034%27W%0D%0A (Map from gcmap)
10. Web site: Mount Everest is more than two feet taller, China and Nepal announce. https://web.archive.org/web/20201208113343/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/12/new-height-of-mount-everest-announced-by-china-and-nepal/. dead. 8 December 2020. nationalgeographib.com. 9 February 2021.
11. Web site: Highest Mountain in the World . geology.com.
12. Web site: Klenke . Paul . Distance to the Center of the Earth . Summit Post . 4 July 2018.
13. Web site: Andes Website – Information about Ojos del Salado volcano, a high mountain in South America and the world's highest volcano . 18 January 2013.
14. Web site: The Highest Lake in the World . 7 September 2007 . 24 August 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070824054810/http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html#Lhagba . dead .
15. Web site: ASTER measurement of supraglacial lakes in the Mount Everest region of the Himalaya: The main Khumbu Glacier is about 17 km long with elevations ranging from 4900m at the terminus to 7600m at the source....The 7600m to 8000m elevations are also depicted on numerous detailed topographic maps . 24 November 2008.
16. Web site: The Mystery of World's highest river and largest Canyon . 7 September 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070921032822/http://www.100gogo.com/bigben.htm . 21 September 2007 .
17. Web site: Island Superlatives . 7 September 2007.
18. McIntyre . Loren . The High Andes . National Geographic . 171 . 4 . 422–460 . National Geographic Society . April 1987 . (includes description and photos of Aucanquilcha summit road and mine)
19. Web site: 17 October 2017 . Battle for the Highest Motorable Road . 17 October 2017 . Motoroids . en.
20. China Border Umling La Pass [World's Highest Motorable Road ] Ep-26 Tripura to Ladakh Ride ]. 31 December 2022 . YouTube.
21. Web site: ICC – Semo Khardung. Assumpció Térmens. viewfinderpanoramas.org. Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya. 20 March 2006. 5 February 2017. en.
22. Web site: [<!-- http://www.wanderlust.co.uk/article.php?page_id=510 -->http://www.wanderlust.co.uk/magazine/articles/destinations/a-train-journey-through-the-peruvian-andes Destination Guides – World's highest railway, Peru – Wanderlust Travel Magazine ]. Bennett . Suzy . Wanderlust Magazine . October 2003 . 10 October 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110725012753/http://www.wanderlust.co.uk/magazine/articles/destinations/a-train-journey-through-the-peruvian-andes . 25 July 2011 . dead .
23. News: China opens world's highest civilian airport . Ben Blanchard . Reuters . 16 September 2013 . 16 September 2013.
24. News: Siachen: The world's highest cold war . CNN . 20 May 2002 . 2 May 2010.
25. Web site: Carrel refuge. . summitpost.org.
26. Web site: Challenger Deep – the Mariana Trench . 30 July 2012 . 24 April 2006 . https://web.archive.org/web/20060424000302/http://www.rain.org/ocean/ocean-studies-challenger-deep-mariana-trench.html . dead .
27. Web site: Deepest Submarine Dive in History, Five Deeps Expedition Conquers Challenger Deep . fivedeeps.com . 13 May 2019.
28. Web site: Weinman . Steve . 2022-07-15 . Deep-sea mapper can't get much deeper! - Divernet . 2023-01-01 . divernet.com . en-GB.
29. Web site: Worlds Deepest Caves . Bob Gulden . Robert Gulden . 13 October 2021 . 31 October 2021.
30. News: Denman Glacier: Deepest point on land found in Antarctica . . Jonathan Amos . 12 December 2019 . 13 December 2019.
31. Mathieu Morlighem . Eric Rignot . Tobias Binder . Donald Blankenship . Reinhard Drews . Graeme Eagles . Olaf Eisen . Fausto Ferraccioli . René Forsberg . Peter Fretwell . Vikram Goel . Jamin S. Greenbaum . Hilmar Gudmundsson . Jingxue Guo . Veit Helm . Coen Hofstede . Ian Howat . Angelika Humbert . Wilfried Jokat . Nanna B. Karlsson . Won Sang Lee . Kenichi Matsuoka . Romain Millan . Jeremie Mouginot . John Paden . Frank Pattyn . Jason Roberts . Sebastian Rosier . Antonia Ruppel . Helene Seroussi . Emma C. Smith . Daniel Steinhage . Bo Sun . Michiel R. van den Broeke . Tas D. van Ommen . Melchior van Wessem . Duncan A. Young . Deep glacial troughs and stabilizing ridges unveiled beneath the margins of the Antarctic ice sheet . . 10.1038/s41561-019-0510-8 . 12 December 2019 . 13 . 2 . 132–137 . 209331991 . 13 December 2019.
32. News: Dead Sea drying: A new low-point for Earth . 17 June 2016 . Kevin . Connolly . BBC . 1 October 2018.
33. Web site: Revisiting "Ocean Depth closest to the Center of the Earth". Arjun Tan, Department of Physics, Alabama A & M University. English. 18 September 2022.
34. News: TauTona, Anglo Gold – Mining Technology . SPG Media Group PLC . 1 January 2009 . 2 March 2009.
35. Web site: Transocean's Ultra-Deepwater Semisubmersible Rig Deepwater Horizon Drills World's Deepest Oil and Gas Well . Transocean . 7 June 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100426171257/http://www.deepwater.com/fw/main/IDeepwater-Horizon-i-Drills-Worlds-Deepest-Oil-and-Gas-Well-419C151.html . 26 April 2010.
36. Sreejith . K.M. . Rajesh . S. . Majumdar . T.J. . Srinivasa Rao . G. . Radhakrishna . M. . Krishna . K.S. . Rajawat . A.S. . High-resolution residual geoid and gravity anomaly data of the northern Indian Ocean – An input to geological understanding . Journal of Asian Earth Sciences . January 2013 . 62 . 616–626 . 10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.11.010. 2013JAESc..62..616S .
37. http://wmo.asu.edu/ Global Weather & Climate Extremes
38. The Kilimanjaro 2008 Precise Height Measurement Expedition. Precise Determination of the Orthometric Height of Mt. Kilimanjaro
39. Web site: Harter . Pascale . A life of constant thirst beside Djibouti's Lake Assal . BBC News . 4 December 2010 . 25 June 2013.
40. 18890. antarid. Mount Vinson. 9 January 2013.
41. http://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/soe/display_indicator.cfm?soe_id=62 Indicator 62 - Water levels of Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills
42. Web site: The 'Highest' Spot on Earth? . NPR.org . 25 June 2013.
43. Web site: Lowest Elevation: Dead Sea . Extremescience.com . 25 June 2013.
44. Web site: N.A. Stepanova . On the Lowest Temperatures on Earth. Docs.lib.noaa.gov. 10 March 2015.
45. Weather Underground - Christopher C. Burt - The Coldest Places on Earth https://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/the-coldest-places-on-earth
46. Web site: Temperatures in Iranian city of Ahvaz hit 129.2F (54C), near hottest on Earth in modern measurements . independent.com . 30 June 2017 . 30 June 2017.
47. Web site: Life Is a Chilling Challenge in Subzero Siberia from the National Geographic . https://web.archive.org/web/20040517011512/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/05/0512_040512_tvoymyakon.html . dead . 17 May 2004 . News.nationalgeographic.com . 28 October 2010 . 25 June 2013.
48. http://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10381 Mount Elbrus
49. Book: Paul A Tucci. Mathew Todd Rosenberg. The Handy Geography Answer Book. 2009. Visible Ink Press. 978-1-57859-272-2. 9.
50. New Elevation for Nation's Highest Peak . USGS . Mark Newell . Blaine Horner . 2 September 2015 . 26 September 2015.
51. Web site: USGS National Elevation Dataset (NED) 1 meter Downloadable Data Collection from The National Map 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) - National Geospatial Data Asset (NGDA) National Elevation Data Set (NED). United States Geological Survey. 21 September 2015. 22 September 2015. 25 March 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190325085854/https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/usgs-national-elevation-dataset-ned-1-meter-downloadable-data-collection-from-the-national-map-. dead.
52. Web site: Temperature reaches 130 °F (54.4 °C) at California's Death Valley. 10 July 2021.
53. http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11360 Carstensz Pyramid, Indonesia
54. Web site: Oceaina . Worldatlas.com . 25 June 2013.
55. News: 13 January 2022. Australia equals hottest day on record at 50.7C. en-GB. BBC News. 23 January 2022.
56. http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=8594 Aconcagua, Argentina
57. Web site: Lowest Points on Land . Geography.about.com . 20 June 2013 . 25 June 2013 . 15 May 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130515142205/http://geography.about.com/od/learnabouttheearth/a/extremes_2.htm . dead .
58. Web site: PWMU . Ninety-year-old World temperature record in El Azizia (Libya) is invalid Improved data strengthens Climate knowledge . Wmo.int . 25 June 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160406053728/http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/press_releases/pr_956_en.html . 6 April 2016 .
59. http://wmo.asu.edu/europe-highest-temperature Europe: Highest Temperature
60. Web site: Western Hemisphere: Lowest Temperature . Wmo.asu.edu . 9 January 1954 . 25 June 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130518042137/http://wmo.asu.edu/western-hemisphere-lowest-temperature . 18 May 2013 .
61. Web site: WMO Region IV (North America): Lowest Temperature . Wmo.asu.edu . 29 March 2020.
62. Web site: Queensland to bake on Christmas Day. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. AM. 24 December 2003. 25 June 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20091104034004/http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2003/s1015670.htm. 4 November 2009.
63. Trewin. Blair. December 1997. Another look at Australia's record high temperature. Australian Meteorological Magazine. 46. 4. 251–256.
64. Bar-On . Yinon M. . Phillips . Rob . Milo . Ron . The biomass distribution on Earth . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 115 . 25 . 21 May 2018 . 0027-8424 . 10.1073/pnas.1711842115 . 6506–6511. 29784790 . 6016768 . 2018PNAS..115.6506B . free .
65. D'Hondt. Steven. July 2009. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106. 28. Subseafloor Sediment In South Pacific Gyre One Of Least Inhabited Places On Earth. etal. 10.1073/pnas.0811793106. 19561304. 11651–11656. 2702254. 2009PNAS..10611651D. free.
66. Kabashkin . Igor . Mikulko . Jelena . Model of Decision Support for Alternative Choice in the Large Scale Transportation Transit System . Unpublished . 2014 . 10.13140/2.1.1874.9440 . 28 August 2022 .
67. Web site: Kommenda . Niko . UK, US, China: how the world's carbon 'centre of gravity' moved over 200 years . the Guardian . 13 October 2021 . 28 August 2022.
68. 10.1080/14702540801897809 . 123 . 3 . 227–233 . Garcia-Castellanos . Daniel . Umberto . Lombardo . Poles of Inaccessibility: A Calculation Algorithm for the Remotest Places on Earth . Scottish Geographical Journal . 1470-2541 . 2007 . Informa UK . 2007ScGJ..123..227G . 55876083 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140803055158/http://cuba.ija.csic.es/~danielgc/papers/Garcia-Castellanos%2C%20Lombardo%2C%202007%2C%20SGJ.pdf . 3 August 2014 .
69. http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/centre.htm Centre of Australia, States and Territories
70. Web site: Where is Point Nemo? . NOAA . 20 February 2015.
71. http://www.daftlogic.com/projects-google-maps-distance-calculator.htm Draft Logic – Google Maps Distance Calculator
72. Web site: Flight Distance from Perth, Australia to Adelaide, Australia . travelmath.com.
73. Web site: The Most Isolated Cities of the World . cityextremes.com.
74. Web site: Great Circle Mapper . gcmap.com.
75. Web site: Discover The Furthest City on Earth From Wherever You Live . furthestcity.com.
76. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Rosario, Argentina? . furthestcity.com.
77. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Liu'an, Anhui, China? . furthestcity.com.
78. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Cuenca, Ecuador? . furthestcity.com.
79. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Shanghai, China?. 25 September 2020. furthestcity.com.
80. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Rancagua, Chile? . furthestcity.com.
81. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Resistencia, Argentina?. 25 September 2020. furthestcity.com.
82. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Yantai, Shandong, China?. furthestcity.com. 15 April 2020.
83. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Coquimbo, Chile?. 25 September 2020. furthestcity.com.
84. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Bandung, Indonesia?. 25 September 2020. furthestcity.com.
85. Web site: What's the Farthest City and Country from Salamanca, Spain? . furthestcity.com.
86. http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=plm-nva&PC=%23ff0000&RC=%23000080&DU=nm&SU=kts Great Circle Mapper
87. Book: Adam Helman. The Finest Peaks: Prominence and Other Mountain Measures. 9 December 2012. 2005. Trafford Publishing. 978-1-4120-5995-4. 31 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201031053845/https://books.google.com/books?id=kr8AM-w8IFQC. live. On p. 20 of Helman (2005):"the base to peak rise of Mount McKinley is the largest of any mountain that lies entirely above sea level, some 18000feet"
88. Web site: Mount Thor -The Greatest Vertical Drop on Earth! . Dailygalaxy.com . 9 March 2010 . 25 June 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20100312051404/https://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2010/03/mount-thor-the-greatest-vertical-drop-on-earth.html . March 12, 2010.
89. 4155. Thor Peak. 30 November 2009.
90. Web site: Gulden. Bob. Robert Gulden . World's Deepest Caves. 8 April 2018.
91. Web site: Starritt. Alex. Climbers explore one of world's deepest underground shafts. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/3284948/Climbers-explore-one-of-worlds-deepest-underground-shafts.html . 12 January 2022 . subscription . live. Daily Telegraph. 30 October 2008 . Telegraph Media Group Limited. 22 September 2015.
92. Web site: Kola Superdeep Borehole. Atlas Obscura.
93. Web site: BP Deepeater Well. Rigzone.
94. Web site: Atlantic Ocean. Five Deeps Expedition. en-GB. 24 January 2020.
95. Web site: Five Deeps Expedition is complete after historic dive to the bottom of the Arctic Ocean.
96. Web site: Deep sea pioneermakes history again as first human to dive to the deepest point in the Indian Ocean, the Java Trench.
97. Web site: Deepest Submarine Dive in History, Five Deeps Expedition Conquers Challenger Deep.
98. News: Daily Reports for R/V KILO MOANA June and July 2009 . 4 June 2009 . University of Hawaii Marine Center . 4 June 2009 . dead . https://archive.today/20120524194643/http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/UMC/Reports/Archives/KMreportJuneJuly2009.html . 24 May 2012 .
99. Web site: Explorer makes history as first human to successfully dive to the deepest point in the Southern Ocean, in the South Sandwich Trench.
100. Plummer, Joel. Jakobshavn Bed Elevation, Center for the Remote Sensing of the Ice Sheets, Dept of Geography, University of Kansas.
101. p. 9, Weather Experiments, Muriel Mandell and Dave Garbot, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2006, .
102. Average of table on p. 26, Extreme Weather: A Guide & Record Book, Christopher C. Burt and Mark Stroud, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007, .
103. Web site: Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000 . Climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca . 4 February 2013 . 25 June 2013.
104. 10.1175/2011BAMS3067.1. Satellite Finds Highest Land Skin Temperatures on Earth. 2011. Running. Steven W.. Zhao. Maosheng. Mildrexler. David J.. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 92. 7. 855–860. 2011BAMS...92..855M. free.
105. Table 9.2, p. 158, Dryland Climatology, Sharon E. Nicholson, Cambridge University Press, 2011, .
106. A possible world record maximum natural ground surface temperature, Paul Kubecka, Weather, 56, #7 (July 2001), Weather, pp. 218-221, .
107. http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0450%281992%29031%3C1096%3AEMLST%3E2.0.CO%3B2 Extreme Maximum Land Surface Temperatures
108. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25287806 Coldest spot on Earth identified by satellite
109. http://fallmeeting.agu.org/2013/files/2013/12/ColdestPlaceOnEarth.pdf The Coldest Place on Earth: -90°C and below from Landsat 8 and other satellite thermal sensors