Ethnic groups in Europe explained

Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common ancestry, common language, common faith, etc. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans in 2002.[1] The Russians are the most populous among Europeans, with a population of roughly 120 million.[2] There are no universally accepted and precise definitions of the terms "ethnic group" and "nationality". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people, nationality and ethno-linguistic group are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.[3]

Overview

In 2021, the number of non-EU nationals living in EU members states was 23.7 million (5.3% of the EU population). The countries with the largest population of non-nationals were Germany, Spain, France and Italy. These four Member States represented 70.3% of all non-EU nationals living in the EU Member States.[4] The population of the European Union, with some 450 million residents, accounts for two thirds of the current European population.

Both Spain and the United Kingdom are special cases, in that the designation of nationality, Spanish and British, may controversially take ethnic aspects, subsuming various regional ethnic groups (see nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain and native populations of the United Kingdom). Switzerland is a similar case, but the linguistic subgroups of the Swiss are discussed in terms of both ethnicity and language affiliations.

Linguistic classifications

Of the total population of Europe of some 740 million (as of 2010), close to 90% (or some 650 million) fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, these being:

Three stand-alone Indo-European languages do not fall within larger sub-groups and are not closely related to those larger language families:

In addition, there are also smaller sub-groups within the Indo-European languages of Europe, including:

Besides the Indo-European languages, there are other language families on the European continent which are considered unrelated to Indo-European:

History

Prehistoric populations

The Basques have been found to descend from the population of the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age directly.[6] [7] By contrast, Indo-European groups of Europe (the Centum, Balto-Slavic, and Albanian groups) migrated throughout most of Europe from the Pontic steppe. They are assumed to have developed in situ through admixture of earlier Mesolithic and Neolithic populations with Bronze Age, proto-Indo-Europeans.[8] [9] [10] The Finnic peoples are assumed to also be descended from Proto-Uralic populations further to the east, nearer to the Ural Mountains, that had migrated to their historical homelands in Europe by about 3,000 years ago.[11]

Reconstructed languages of Iron Age Europe include Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic and Proto-Germanic, all of these Indo-European languages of the centum group, and Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic, of the satem group. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian, Lemnian, and perhaps Camunic. A pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty.

Regarding the European Bronze Age, the only relatively likely reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). A Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for the Bell beaker period), and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly the Corded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.

According to geneticist David Reich, based on ancient human genomes that his laboratory sequenced in 2016, Europeans descend from a mixture of four distinct ancestral components.[12]

Historical populations

Iron Age (pre-Great Migrations) populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus:

the Greek tribes, Pelasgians, and Anatolians.

the Illyrians (List of ancient tribes in Illyria), Dacians, and Thracians.

the Camunni, Rhaetians, Lepontii, Adriatic Veneti, Gauls, Ligurians, Etruscans, Italic peoples and Greek and Phoenician colonies in its neighboring Italian islands.

the Insular Celts.

the Baltic Finns, Germanic peoples (list of Germanic peoples) and Normans.

the Italic Sicels and Morgetes, the Sicani, Elymians and Greek and Phoenician colonies.

the Veneti (Early Slavs), Scythians and Sarmatians.

Historical immigration

Ethno-linguistic groups that arrived from outside Europe during historical times are:

History of European ethnography

The earliest accounts of European ethnography date from Classical Antiquity. Herodotus described the Scythians and Thraco-Illyrians. Dicaearchus gave a description of Greece itself, besides accounts of western and northern Europe. His work survives only fragmentarily, but was received by Polybius and others.

Roman Empire period authors include Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Tacitus. Julius Caesar gives an account of the Celtic tribes of Gaul, while Tacitus describes the Germanic tribes of Magna Germania. A number of authors like Diodorus Siculus, Pausanias and Sallust depict the ancient Sardinian and Corsican peoples.

The 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana records the names of numerous peoples and tribes.Ethnographers of Late Antiquity such as Agathias of Myrina, Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes, and Theophylact Simocatta give early accounts of the Slavs, the Franks, the Alamanni and the Goths.

Book IX of Isidore's Etymologiae (7th century) treats de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (concerning languages, peoples, realms, war and cities).Ahmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of the Bolghar and the Rus' peoples.William Rubruck, while most notable for his account of the Mongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of the Tatars and the Alans.Saxo Grammaticus and Adam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. The Chronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.

Gottfried Hensel in his 1741 Synopsis Universae Philologiae published one of the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of the pater noster in the various European languages and scripts.[14] [15] In the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms of scientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of "races", Mediterranean, Alpine and Nordic, all part of a larger "Caucasian" group.

The beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context of nationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes of fascist and Nazi propaganda, so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as a bona fide academic subdiscipline.[16]

The origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work of Bronisław Malinowski, who emphasized the importance of fieldwork.[17] The emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east–west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the indigenous Basques, Sardinians and Sami from other European populations.Despite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: "there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world."[18] [19] [20]

Minorities

The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.[1]

The member states of the Council of Europe in 1995 signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states had signed and ratified the convention, with the notable exception of France.

Indigenous minorities

Definitions of what constitutes Indigenous minority groups in Europe can vary widely. One criterion is the so-called "time element", or how long the original inhabitants of a land occupied it before the arrival of later settlers. As there is no fixed time frame, the answer to the question of what groups constitute Indigenous minorities is often context-dependent. The most extreme view claims that all Europeans are "descendants of previous waves of immigrants", and as such, the countries of Europe are no different from the United States or Canada with regards to who settled where.[21]

Some groups that claim Indigenous minority status in Europe include the Uralic Nenets, Samoyed, and Komi peoples of northern Russia; Circassians of southern Russia and the North Caucasus; Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks and Crimean Karaites of Crimea (Ukraine); Sámi peoples of northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland and northwestern Russia (in an area also referred to as Sápmi); Galicians of Galicia, Spain; Catalans of Catalonia, Spain and southern France; Basques of Basque Country, Spain and southern France; Gaels of Ireland, the Scottish Highlands, and the Isle of Man; Also the Silesian and Sorbian people of Germany and Poland.

Non-Indigenous minorities

See main article: Immigration to Europe. Many non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have migrated to Europe over the centuries. Some arrived centuries ago. However, the vast majority arrived more recently, mostly in the 20th and 21st centuries. Often, they come from former colonies of the British, Dutch, French, Portuguese and Spanish empires.

There were 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans in 1997 (excluding Northern Cyprus and Turkey). By 2010, there were up to 15 million Turks living in the European Union (i.e. excluding Turkish communities in Turkey as well as several Balkan countries and post-Soviet countries which are not in the EU). According to Dr Araks Pashayan, 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium in 2012. In addition, there are 500,000 Turks in the UK (2011 estimate),[22] [23] 500,000 in Austria (2011 estimate)[23] [24] 150,000 in Sweden,[25] 120,000 in Switzerland, 70,000 in Denmark (2008 estimate), as well as growing communities in Italy, Liechtenstein, Finland and Spain. In addition, over one million Turks were living in the Balkans in 2019 (especially in Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Romania), and approximately 400,000 Meskhetian Turks were living in the Eastern European regions of the post-Soviet states (i.e. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine) in 2014.[26]

approximately 2 million, mostly in France, the UK, Russia and Germany. They are descended from the Israelites of the Middle East (Southwest Asia),[27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] originating from the historical kingdoms of Israel and Judah.[34] [35] [36] [37]

approximately 1.4 million, mostly in the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Germany and Ukraine. They are believed by scholars to have arrived from Israel via southern Europe[38] [39] [40] [41] [42] in the Roman era[43] and settled in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The Nazi Holocaust wiped out the vast majority during World War II and forced most to flee, with many of them going back to Israel.

from Uzbekistan, approximately 320,000, now half in Israel, 12% in the United States (2/3 in the New York metropolitan area), 5% the United Kingdom, and 3% scattered in Austria, Germany, Uzbekistan, Canada, and Russia.

approximately 300,000, mostly in France. They arrived via Spain and Portugal in the pre-Roman[44] and Roman[45] eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries.

approximately 300,000, mostly in France, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East.

approximately 50,000, mostly in Italy, since the 2nd century BC.

approximately 6,000, mostly in Greece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century AD.

mostly in Sweden and Germany, as well as in Russia, Armenia, Denmark and Great Britain (see Assyrian diaspora). Assyrians have been present in Eastern Turkey since the Bronze Age (circa 2000 BCE).

approximately 2.5 million, mostly in the UK, Germany, Sweden and Turkey.

mostly in the UK, Germany and Sweden, and can be of varying ethnic origin, including Arabs, Assyrians, Kurds, Armenians, Shabaks, Mandeans, Turks, Kawliya and Yezidis.

especially in France, Netherlands, Germany, Cyprus and the UK.[46]

Largest number of Syrians live in Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden and can be of varying ethnic origin, including; Arabs, Assyrians, Kurds, Armenians, Arameans, Turks, Mhallami and Yezidis.

approximately 2.2 million in 2007, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK.[48] See also Latin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001).[49]

around 280,000 in Portugal, and 50,000 in Italy and Germany each (mainly German-Brazilians).[50] [51]

about 21,000 in Spain[52] and 14,000 in Germany[53]

around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000).

approximately 3-4 million, mostly in the UK but reside in smaller numbers in Germany and France.

approximately 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Netherlands, Italy, in Germany and France.

approximately 1 million, mostly in the UK, but also in France, Spain, Germany and Italy.

approximately 200,000, mainly in the UK.

approximately 50,000 in the UK.

above 1 million, mostly in Italy, the UK, France, Germany, and Spain.

approximately 1.7 million, mostly in France, Russia, the UK, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands.

mostly in the UK and a sizable community in Düsseldorf, Germany.

100,000 estimated (excluding a possible 100,000 more in the Asian section of Russia), mainly in the UK, France and Germany. See also Koryo-saram.

European identity

Historical

Medieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms of genealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups.The Europeans were considered the descendants of Japheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world into three continents, the descendants of Shem peopling Asia and those of Ham peopling Africa. Identification of Europeans as "Japhetites" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming the Indo-European languages "Japhetic".

In this tradition, the Historia Brittonum (9th century) introduces a genealogy of the peoples of the Migration Period based on the sixth-century Frankish Table of Nations as follows,

The first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.

From Hisicion arose four nations—the Franks, the Latins, the Germans, and Britons; from Armenon, the Gothi, Valagothi, Cibidi, Burgundi, and Longobardi; from Neugio, the Bogari, Vandali, Saxones, and Tarincgi. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes.[55] The text goes then on to list the genealogy of Alanus, connecting him to Japheth via eighteen generations.

European culture

See main article: Culture of Europe and Western culture. European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its "common cultural heritage".[56] Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture.[57] Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe.[58] One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:[59]

Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realisations".The concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon.[60] The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.

Religion

See main article: Religion in Europe and Christendom. Since the High Middle Ages, most of Europe has been dominated by Christianity. There are three major denominations: Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, with Protestantism restricted mostly to Northern Europe, and Orthodoxy to East and South Slavic regions, Romania, Moldova, Greece, and Georgia. The Armenian Apostolic Church, part of the Oriental Church, is also in Europe – another branch of Christianity (world's oldest National Church). Catholicism, while typically centered in Western Europe, also has a very significant following in Central Europe (especially among the Germanic, Western Slavic and Hungarian peoples/regions) as well as in Ireland (with some in Great Britain).

Christianity has been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years.[61] [62] [63] [64] [65] Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus, and throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture.[66] The Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science.[67] [68] The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.[69]

Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves Christians.[70] Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 72% of the EU's population. As of 2010 Catholics were the largest Christian group in Europe, accounting for more than 48% of European Christians. The second-largest Christian group in Europe were the Orthodox, who made up 32% of European Christians. About 19% of European Christians were part of the Protestant tradition.[71] Russia is the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed by Germany and Italy.[71] According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970),[72] [73] these changes were largely result of the collapse of Communism and switching to Christianity in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries.[72]

Islam has some tradition in the Balkans and the Caucasus due to conquest and colonization from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries, as well as earlier though discontinued long-term presence in much of Iberia as well as Sicily. Muslims account for the majority of the populations in Albania, Azerbaijan, Kosovo, Northern Cyprus (controlled by Turks), and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. Russia also has one of the largest Muslim communities in Europe, including the Tatars of the Middle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, including Chechens, Avars, Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations, Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%),[74] [75] while the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).[76]

Judaism has a long history in Europe, but is a small minority religion, with France (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of two groups, the Ashkenazi and the Sephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to Central Europe at least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselves in Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in the Levant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece as well as the Balkans since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected by the Holocaust and emigration (including Aliyah, as well as emigration to America) in the 20th century. The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population.[77] In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe,[77] [78] followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.[78]

In modern times, significant secularization since the 20th century, notably in secularist France, Estonia and the Czech Republic. Currently, distribution of theism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll[79] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God. According to a Pew Research Center Survey in 2012 the Religiously Unaffiliated (Atheists and Agnostics) make up about 18.2% of the European population in 2010.[80] According to the same Survey the Religiously Unaffiliated make up the majority of the population in only two European countries: Czech Republic (76%) and Estonia (60%).[80]

Pan-European identity

See main article: Pan-European identity. "Pan-European identity" or "Europatriotism" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or the European Union as a result of the gradual process of European integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of the Cold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of the OSCE following the 1990s Paris Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.

From the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for the European Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU member states. The prefix pan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted with national identity.[81]

European ethnic groups by sovereign state

See also: List of countries by ethnic groups.

Country Majority % Regional majorities Minorities
97%[82] [83] Greeks ≈3%,[84] and other 2% (Aromanians, Romani, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Bulgarians, Bosniaks, Jews and Serbs).[85]
ArmeniaArmenians98.1% Russians, Yazidis, Assyrians, Kurds, Greeks, Jews, Loms and Ukrainians.
Azerbaijanis91.6%Lezgin 2%, Armenians 1.35% Russians, Tats, Talysh, Kurds, Avars, Turks, Tatars, Ukrainians, and Poles.
83.7%Russians 8.3%, Poles 3.1%, Ukrainians 1.7%, and other 3.2%. (2009 census)
58%Walloons 31%, Germans 1% mixed or other (i.e. Luxembourgers, Eastern Europeans or Southern Europeans, Africans and Asians, and Latin Americans) 10%.
50.11% Serbs 30.78%, Croats 15.43%Albanians, Macedonians, Roma and Turks (2013 census)
84%Turks 8.8% Roma 5%, Others 2% (including Russian, Armenian, Crimean Tatars, Sarakatsani, and "Vlach" [Romanians and Aromanians]). (2001 census)[86]
91.6% Serbs 3.2%, other 5.2% (including Bosniaks, Roma, Albanians, Italians, Hungarians and others). (2021 census)
90.4%Moravians 3.7% Slovaks 1.9%, and other 4%. (including Bulgarians, Croats, Germans, Poles, Roma and Vietnamese). (2001 census)
90%[87] other Scandinavians, Germans, Frisians, other European, Indigenous Greenlandic people and others.
68.8%Russians 24.2%, Ukrainians 2.0%, Belarusians 0.8%, Finns 0.6%.
Finland93.4%Finland-Swedes 5.6%, Sami 0.1%Russians 1.1%, Estonians 0.7%, Romani 0.1% and Latvians 0.5%. (2019) also Somalis, Germans, Macedonians and Iranians
Georgia[88] Georgians86.8% Russians, Azerbaijanis, Tats, Armenians, Ukrainians, Greeks, Ossetians
93% includes linguistic minorities 3%Albanians 4% and other (i.e. Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Cretan Turks and Macedonian/Greek Slavic 3%. (2001 census)
92.3%Romani 1.9%, Germans 1.2%, other (i.e. Croats, Romanians, Bulgarians, Turks and Rusyns) or unknown 4.6%. (2001 census)
91%other (non-native/immigrants – mainly Polish, Lithuanians, Danes, Germans and Latvians) 9%.[89]
87.4%Ulster Scots and Irish Travellers 1.6%other white (large numbers of Lithuanian, Latvian, Polish and Ukrainian migration) 7.5%, Asian 1.3%, black 1.1%, mixed 1.1%. (2006 census)
Italians91.7%Southtyroleans in South Tyrol (Bavarian and Ladin People), Franco-Provençal in Aosta Valley and (northwestern Apulia) Historical ethno-linguistic minorities (Sardinian, French, Occitan, Arpitan, Croatian, Albanian, Catalan, Austrian, Greek, Ladin, Friulian, Slovene and Roma minorities),[90] [91] regional language native speakers (Gallo-Italic, Venetian, Neapolitan, Sicilian),[92] other Europeans (mostly Romanians, Albanians, Ukrainians and Polish) 4%, North African Arabs 1% and others (i.e. Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Black African and Latin American) 2.5%.[93] [94] [95] [96]
Kazakhs63.1%Russians 23.7% Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Uyghurs, Tatars, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Germans, Poles and Koreans.
Kosovo 92%Serbs 4% other 4% (Bosniaks, Gorani, Croats, Jews, Romani, Turks and Ashkali and Egyptians).
62.1%[97] Livonians 0.1% Russians 26.9%, Belarusian 3.3%, Ukrainian 2.2%, Polish 2.2%, Lithuanian 1.2%, and other 2.0%. (2011)
84.61%Poles 6.53% Russians 5.02%, Belarusians 1.00%, Ukrainians 0.50%, other 2.34% (2021 census)
95.3%[98]
Moldova75.1% Gagauzs 4.6%, Bulgarians 1.9% Romanians 7%, Ukrainians 6.6%, Russians 4.1%, and other 0.8% (2014 census).
Montenegro44.98% Serbs 28.73%Bosniaks 8.65%, Albanians 4.91%, and other (Croats, Turks, Greeks, Romani and Macedonians) 12,73%. (2011 census)
Macedonians64%Albanians 25.2%, Turks 4%Romani 2.7%, Serbs 1.8%, and other (i.e. Aromanians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Megleno-Romanians, Gorani, and Croats) 2.2%. (2002 census)
85–87% Sami 0.7%[99] Kvens 0.2%[100] Poles 2.10%. A variety of other ethnicities with background from 219 countries that together make up approximately 15% (Swedes, Danes, Somalis, Arabs, Kurds, Vietnamese, Germans, Lithuanians, Russians and different South Asian ethnicities) (2020).[101]
Poland97% Germans 0.4%, Belarusians 0.1%, Ukrainians 0.1%, other and unspecified (i.e. Silesians, Kashubians, Masurians and Prussian Lithuanians) 2.7%, and about 5,000 Polish Jews reported to reside in the country. (2002 census)
Portugal95% Portuguese Mirandese speakers 15.000~ (i.e. Mirandese-language speakers) other 5% – other Europeans (British, German, French, Spanish, Romanians, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Croats, Ukrainians, Moldavians, Russians, Serbs, Kosovars and Albanians); Africans from Portuguese-speaking Africa, Brazilians, Chinese, Indians, Jews, Portuguese Gypsies and Latin Americans.
Romania83.4%Hungarians 6.1% Romani 3.0%, Germans 0.2%, Ukrainians 0.2%, Turks 0.2%, Russians 0.1% (2011 census)
Russia81%Tatars 3.9%, Chuvashes 1%, Chechens 1%, Ossetians 0.4%, Kabardin 0.4%, Ingushes 0.3%, Kalmyks 0.1%Ukrainians 1.4%, Bashkir 1.2%, Armenians 0.9%, Avars 0.7%, Mordvins 0.5% and other. (2010 census, includes Asian Russia, excludes unspecified people (3.94% of population)).[102] [103]
83% Hungarians 3.9%, Romani 1.4%, Yugoslavs 1.1%, Bosniaks 1.8%, Montenegrin 0.9%, and other 8%. i.e. Macedonians, Slovaks, Romanians, Croats, Ruthenes, Bulgarians, Germans, Albanians, and other (2002 census).
86%Hungarians 9.7%Romani 1.7%, Rusyn/Ukrainian 1%, other and unspecified 1.8% (2001 census)
83.1% Serbs 2%, Croats 1.8%, Bosniaks 1.1%, other (Dalmatian Italians, ethnic Germans, Hungarians and Romanians) and/or unspecified 12% (2002 census).
Sweden88% Finns (Tornedalians) foreign-born or first-generation immigrants: Finns (Sweden-Finns), Yugoslavs (Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks), Danes, Norwegians, Russians, Arabs (Lebanese and Syrians), Syriacs, Greeks, Turks, Iranians, Iraqis, Pakistanis, Thais, Koreans, and Chileans.[104] [105]
Swiss Germans65%[106] French 18%, Italians 10%Romansh people in Grisons
TurkeyTurks75% Kurds 18% Other 7%: Albanians, Arabs, Armenians (including Hemshin), Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Bosniaks, Bulgarians (including Pomaks), Chechens, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Georgians (including Laz), Greeks, Romani, Ossetians and Zaza.
77.8%Russians 17.3% Belarusians 0.6%, Moldovans 0.5%, Crimean Tatars 0.5%, Bulgarians 0.4%, Hungarians 0.3%, Romanians 0.3%, Poles 0.3%, Jews 0.2%, Armenians 0.1%, Urums 0.1% and other 1.8% (2001 census).

See also

Bibliography

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil (2002), Minderheitenrechte in Europa. Handbuch der europäischen Volksgruppen, Braumüller, (Google Books, snippet view). Also 2006 reprint by Springer (Amazon, no preview) . Book: Minderheitenrechte in Europa . 14 August 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151205031959/https://books.google.com/books?id=YRtnAAAAMAAJ . 5 December 2015 . bot: unknown . 9783700314226 . Pan . Christoph . Pfeil . Beate Sibylle . 2002 . Braumüller .
  2. Encyclopedia: Russische Federatie – feiten en cijfers . . 1993–2002 . Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum . nl.
  3. Pan and Pfeil (2004), "Problems with Terminology", pp. xvii–xx.
  4. Web site: Non-EU citizens make up 5.3% of the EU population . Eurostat . 16 February 2024.
  5. Total population of Yiddish estimated at 1.5 million as of 1991, of which c. 40% in Ukraine.,,
  6. 10.1073/pnas.071036898 . 98 . Genetic evidence for different male and female roles during cultural transitions in the British Isles . 2001 . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 5078–5083 . Wilson . J. F. . 9 . 11287634 . 33166 . 2001PNAS...98.5078W. free .
  7. Günther. Torsten. etal. Ancient genomes link early farmers from Atapuerca in Spain to modern-day Basques. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112. 38. 2015. 11917–11922. 10.1073/pnas.1509851112. 26351665. 4586848. 2015PNAS..11211917G. free.
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  9. Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia. 7 June 2015. Nature. 522. 7555. 167–172. 10.1038/nature14507. 26062507. Allentoft. Morten E.. Sikora. Martin. Sjögren. Karl-Göran. Rasmussen. Simon. Rasmussen. Morten. Stenderup. Jesper. Damgaard. Peter B.. Schroeder. Hannes. Ahlström. Torbjörn. Vinner. Lasse. Malaspinas. Anna-Sapfo. Margaryan. Ashot. Higham. Tom. Chivall. David. Lynnerup. Niels. Harvig. Lise. Baron. Justyna. Casa. Philippe Della. Dąbrowski. Paweł. Duffy. Paul R.. Ebel. Alexander V.. Epimakhov. Andrey. Frei. Karin. Furmanek. Mirosław. Gralak. Tomasz. Gromov. Andrey. Gronkiewicz. Stanisław. Grupe. Gisela. Hajdu. Tamás. Jarysz. Radosław. 29. 2015Natur.522..167A. 4399103.
  10. Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe. David. Reich. Nick. Patterson. Wolfgang. Haak. Kurt W.. Alt. Alan. Cooper. Carles Lalueza. Fox. Dorcas. Brown. David. Anthony. Johannes. Krause. Manuel A. Rojo. Guerra. Harald. Meller. Joseph. Pickrell. Bastien. Llamas. Swapan. Mallick. Nadin. Rohland. Iosif. Lazaridis. Iain. Mathieson. 14 March 2015. bioRxiv. 016477. www.biorxiv.org. 10.1101/016477. free.
  11. Book: Richard, Lewis . Finland, Cultural Lone Wolf . 2005 . Intercultural Press . 978-1-931930-18-5 . Y-Chromosomal Diversity Suggests that Baltic Males Share Common Finno-Ugric-Speaking Forefathers. 8 October 2008. Laitinen. Virpi. Päivi Lahermo. Human Heredity. 24 August 2001. 53. 2. 68–78. Department of Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finnish Genome Center, University of Helsinki. 10.1159/000057985. 12037406. 29863635.
  12. Iosif Lazaridis. et al. 2016. Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East. Nature. 536. 7617. 419–424. 10.1038/nature19310. 27459054. 5003663. 2016Natur.536..419L. bottom-left: Western Hunter Gatherers (WHG), top-left: Eastern Hunter Gatherers (EHG), bottom-right: Neolithic Levant and Natufians, top-right: Neolithic Iran. This suggests the hypothesis that diverse ancient West Eurasians can be modeled as mixtures of as few as four streams of ancestry related to these population. 18 April 2018.
  13. Web site: The Last Christians Of North-West Africa: Some Lessons For Orthodox Today. Fr Andrew. Phillips. Orthodoxengland.org.uk. 12 December 2017.
  14. Web site: Synopsis vniversæ philologiæ in qua miranda vnitas et harmonia lingvarvm: Totivs orbis terrarvm occvlta, e literarvm, syllabarvm, vocvmqve natvra & recessibvs ervitvr; cum grammatica ... mappisqve geographico-polyglottis .... Gottfried. Hensel. 12 December 2017. In commissis apvd heredes Homannianos. 12 December 2017. Google Books.
  15. Karl Friedrich Vollgraff, Erster Versuch einer Begründung sowohl der allgemeinen Ethnologie durch die Anthropologie, wie auch der Staats und Rechts-philosophie durch die Ethnologie oder Nationalität der Völker (1851), p. 257.
  16. A. Kumar, Encyclopaedia of Teaching of Geography (2002), p. 74 ff.; the tripartite subdivision of "Caucasians" into Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean groups persisted among some scientists into the 1960s, notably in Carleton Coon's book The Origin of Races (1962).
  17. Andrew Barry, Political Machines (2001), p. 56
  18. Measuring European Population Stratification using Microarray Genotype Data, Sitesled.com
  19. Web site: DNA heritage . 20 July 2007 . 18 February 2004 . https://web.archive.org/web/20040218085346/http://www.dnaheritage.com/masterclass2.asp . dead .
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  21. Book: Orgad . Liav . Koopmans . Ruud . Majorities, Minorities, and the Future of Nationhood . 24 November 2022 . Cambridge University Press . 978-1-009-23333-0 . 21 . 10 February 2023 . en.
  22. Web site: Home Affairs Committee. 2011. Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union. The Stationery Office. Ev 34.
  23. News: The Guardian. UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs. 1 August 2011. 1 August 2011. The Home Office says that there are about 150,000 Turkish nationals living in Britain at present, with about 500,000 people of Turkish origin living in the country altogether. But Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France all have larger Turkish communities which are more likely to attract a new wave of legal migration..
  24. Web site: Mölzer, Andreas. In Österreich leben geschätzte 500.000 Türken, aber kaum mehr als 10–12.000 Slowenen. 30 October 2020. dead. https://archive.today/20120722212601/http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/index.php?id=24. 2012-07-22.
  25. Web site: Sayıner. Arda. 2018. Ankara Historia. Daily Sabah. Having said that, a few thousand Swedish citizens currently live in Turkey and the number went up 60 percent in 2017. According to Hyden, Turkish hospitality played an important part behind this increase. She said around 150,000 Turkish citizens live in Sweden, which has a total population of 10 million. .
  26. Web site: Al Jazeera. Ahıska Türklerinin 70 yıllık sürgünü. Al Jazeera. 2014. 2016-07-05.
  27. Web site: http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=57988 . ru:В России проживает около миллиона иудеев . About 1 million Jews live in Russia . interfax-religion.ru . 26 February 2015 . 11 June 2020 . live. https://web.archive.org/web/20191227164356/http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=57988 . 27 December 2019 . ru.
  28. Ann E. Killebrew, Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines and Early Israel 1300-1100 B.C.E. (Archaeology and Biblical Studies), Society of Biblical Literature, 2005
  29. Book: Schama, Simon . Simon Schama . The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words 1000 BC-1492 AD. 18 March 2014. HarperCollins. 978-0-06-233944-7.
    • "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament."
    • "The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)."

    Jew at Encyclopædia Britannica

  31. "Israelite, in the broadest sense, a Jew, or a descendant of the Jewish patriarch Jacob"Israelite at Encyclopædia Britannica
  32. "Hebrew, any member of an ancient northern Semitic people that were the ancestors of the Jews." Hebrew (People) at Encyclopædia Britannica
  33. Book: Ostrer, Harry . Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. 19 April 2012. Oxford University Press, USA. 978-0-19-970205-3.
  34. Book: Brenner, Michael . A Short History of the Jews. registration . 13 June 2010. Princeton University Press. 978-0-691-14351-4.
  35. Book: Scheindlin, Raymond P. . A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. 1998. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-513941-9.
  36. Book: Adams, Hannah . The History of the Jews: From the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time. 1840. Sold at the London Society House and by Duncan and Malcom, and Wertheim.
  37. Web site: Diamond. Jared. Who are the Jews?. 1993. 8 November 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133548/http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf. 21 July 2011. dead. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.
  38. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. 10.1073/pnas.100115997. 10801975. 18733. 97. 12. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 6769–6774. 2000. Hammer. M. F. . Redd. A. J. . Wood . E. T. . Bonner . M. R. . Jarjanazi . H. . Karafet . T. . Santachiara-Benerecetti . S. . Oppenheim . A. . Jobling . M. A. . Jenkins . T. . Ostrer . H. . Bonne-Tamir . B. . 2000PNAS...97.6769H. free.
  39. News: Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora. Nicholas. Wade. The New York Times. 9 May 2000. 10 October 2012.
  40. No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews . https://web.archive.org/web/20141011082707/http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=humbiol_preprints . 11 October 2014 . live . 2013 . 11 June 2020 . Human Biology Open Access Pre-Prints . Paper 41 . Behar, Doron M. . Metspalu, Mait . Baran, Yael . Kopelman, Naama M. . Yunusbayev, Bayazit . Gladstein, Ariella . Tzur, Shay . Sahakyan, Havhannes . Bahmanimehr, Ardeshir . Yepiskoposyan, Levon . Tambets, Kristiina . Khusnutdinova, Elza K. . Kusniarevich, Aljona . Balanovsky, Oleg . Balanovsky, Elena . Kovacevic, Lejla . Marjanovic, Damir . Mihailov, Evelin . Kouvatsi, Anastasia . Traintaphyllidis, Costas . King, Roy J. . Semino, Ornella . Torroni, Antonio . Hammer, Michael F. . Metspalu, Ene . Skorecki, Karl . Rosset, Saharon . Halperin, Eran . Villems, Richard . Rosenberg, Noah A. .
  41. A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages. Marta D.. Costa. Joana B.. Pereira. Maria. Pala. Verónica. Fernandes. Anna. Olivieri. Alessandro. Achilli. Ugo A.. Perego. Sergei. Rychkov. Oksana. Naumova. Jiři. Hatina. Scott R.. Woodward. Ken Khong. Eng. Vincent. Macaulay. Martin. Carr. Pedro. Soares. Luísa. Pereira. Martin B.. Richards. 8 October 2013. Nature Communications. 4. 2543. 10.1038/ncomms3543. 24104924. 3806353. 2013NatCo...4.2543C.
  42. Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans . Nature. 513. 7518. 409–13. 1312.6639. Lazaridis. Iosif. Patterson. Nick. Mittnik. Alissa. Renaud. Gabriel. Mallick. Swapan. Kirsanow. Karola. Sudmant. Peter H. Schraiber. Joshua G. Castellano. Sergi. Lipson. Mark. Berger. Bonnie. Economou. Christos. Bollongino. Ruth. Fu. Qiaomei. Bos. Kirsten I. Nordenfelt. Susanne. Li. Heng. Cesare de Filippo. Prüfer. Kay. Sawyer. Susanna. Posth. Cosimo. Haak. Wolfgang. Hallgren. Fredrik. Fornander. Elin. Rohland. Nadin. Delsate. Dominique. Francken. Michael. Guinet. Jean-Michel. Wahl. Joachim. Ayodo. George. 29. 2013. 10.1038/nature13673. 25230663. 4170574. 2014Natur.513..409L.
  43. Gregory Cochran, Henry Harpending, The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution, Basic Books, 2009 pp. 195–196.
  44. Moses ben Machir, in Seder Ha-Yom, p. 15a, Venice 1605 (Hebrew)
  45. Josephus Flavius, Antiquities, xi.v.2
  46. News: Petition for expatriate voting officially launched . . 14 July 2012.
  47. News: France's blacks stand up to be counted . Sachs . Susan . The Globe and Mail . 5 February 2007 . 11 June 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200611063026/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/frances-blacks-stand-up-to-be-counted/article17990408/ . 11 June 2020 . live.
  48. Web site: Latin American Immigration to Southern Europe. 28 June 2007. Migrationinformation.org. 12 December 2017.
  49. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/born_abroad/countries/html/overview.stm Born Abroad – Countries of birth
  50. Web site: Comunidade Brasileira no Exterior - Estimativas referentes ao ano de 2020 . pt . . 14 September 2020 . 24 February 2021.
  51. Web site: Brasiliani in Italia - statistiche e distribuzione per regione . 2022-06-07 . Tuttitalia.it . it.
  52. Web site: Población extranjera por Nacionalidad, comunidades, Sexo y Año.. INE.
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  55. ab Hisitione autem ortae sunt quattuor gentes Franci, Latini, Albani et Britti. ab Armenone autem quinque: Gothi, Valagothi, Gebidi, Burgundi, Longobardi. a Neguio vero quattuor Boguarii, Vandali, Saxones et Turingi. trans. J. A. Giles. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1848.
  56. Cf. Berting (2006:51).
  57. Cederman (2001:2) remarks: "Given the absence of an explicit legal definition and the plethora of competing identities, it is indeed hard to avoid the conclusion that Europe is an essentially contested concept." Cf. also Davies (1996:15); Berting (2006:51).
  58. Cf. Jordan-Bychkov (2008:13), Davies (1996:15), Berting (2006:51–56).
  59. K. Bochmann (1990) L'idée d'Europe jusqu'au XXè siècle, quoted in Berting (2006:52). Cf. Davies (1996:15): "No two lists of the main constituents of European civilization would ever coincide. But many items have always featured prominently: from the roots of the Christian world in Greece, Rome and Judaism to modern phenomena such as the Enlightenment, modernization, romanticism, nationalism, liberalism, imperialism, totalitarianism."
  60. Duran (1995:81)
  61. Religions in Global Society – Page 146, Peter Beyer – 2006
  62. Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
  63. Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p.2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization — the civilization of western Europe and of America— have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.
  64. Horst Hutter, University of New York, Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices (2004), p.111:three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.
  65. Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices (2004), p.22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.
  66. Book: Dawson, Christopher. Crisis in Western Education. 1961. 978-0-8132-1683-6. reprint. Glenn Olsen. 108. CUA Press .
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  69. Book: Dawson, Christopher. Crisis in Western Education. 1961. 9780813216836. reprint. Glenn Olsen. 108. CUA Press .
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  71. Web site: Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population. 19 December 2011.
  72. Book: Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2017. Gina. Zurlo. Vegard . Skirbekk. Brian . Grim. 2019. 9789004346307. 85. BRILL.
  73. Book: African Perspectives on Culture and World Christianity. Joseph. Ogbonnaya. 2017. 9781443891592. 2–4. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
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  75. Web site: Table: Muslim Population by Country. 27 January 2011. Pewforum.org. 12 December 2017.
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  81. This is particularly the case among proponents of the so-called confederalist or neo-functionalist position on European integration. Eder and Spohn (2005:3) note: "The evolutionary thesis of the making of a European identity often goes with the assumption of a simultaneous decline of national identities. This substitution thesis reiterates the well-known confederalist/neo-functionalist position in the debate on European integration, arguing for an increasing replacement of the nation-state by European institutions, against the intergovernmentalist/realist position, insisting on the continuing primacy of the nation-state."
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  87. Persons of Danish origin: 4 985 415. Total population: 5 511 451 Statistics Denmark
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