Enteroendocrine cell explained

Enteroendocrine cell
Latin:endocrinocyti gastroenteropancreatici
Location:Gastrointestinal tract
System:Endocrine system

Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as local messengers, or transmit them to the enteric nervous system to activate nervous responses.[1] [2] Enteroendocrine cells of the intestine are the most numerous endocrine cells of the body.[3] [4] [5] They constitute an enteric endocrine system as a subset of the endocrine system just as the enteric nervous system is a subset of the nervous system.[6] In a sense they are known to act as chemoreceptors, initiating digestive actions and detecting harmful substances and initiating protective responses.[7] [8] Enteroendocrine cells are located in the stomach, in the intestine and in the pancreas. Microbiota play key roles in the intestinal immune and metabolic responses in these enteroendocrine cells via their fermentation product (short chain fatty acid), acetate.[9]

Intestinal enteroendocrine cells

Intestinal enteroendocrine cells are not clustered together but spread as single cells throughout the intestinal tract.

Hormones secreted include somatostatin, motilin, cholecystokinin, neurotensin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and enteroglucagon.[10] The enteroendocrine cells sense the metabolites from intestinal commensal microbiota and, in turn, coordinate antibacterial, mechanical, and metabolic branches of the host intestinal innate immune response to the commensal microbiota.[11]

K cell

K cells secrete gastric inhibitory peptide, an incretin, which also promotes triglyceride storage.[12] K cells are mostly found in the duodenum.[13]

L cell

L cells secrete glucagon-like peptide-1, an incretin, peptide YY3-36, oxyntomodulin and glucagon-like peptide-2. L cells are primarily found in the ileum and large intestine (colon), but some are also found in the duodenum and jejunum.[14]

I cell

I cells secrete cholecystokinin (CCK), and have the highest mucosal density in the duodenum with a decreasing amount throughout the small intestine.[15] They modulate bile secretion, exocrine pancreas secretion, and satiety.[16]

G cell

See main article: G cell. Stomach enteroendocrine cells, which release gastrin, and stimulate gastric acid secretion.[17]

Enterochromaffin cell

Enterochromaffin cells are enteroendocrine and neuroendocrine cells with a close similarity to adrenomedullary chromaffin cells secreting serotonin.[18]

Enterochromaffin-like cell

Enterochromaffin-like cells or ECL cells are a type of neuroendocrine cell secreting histamine.

N cell

Located in a increasing manner throughout the small intestine, with the highest levels found in the in ileum,[19] N cells release neurotensin, and control smooth muscle contraction.[20]

S cell

See main article: S cell. S cells secrete secretin mostly from the duodenum, but also in decreasing amounts throughout the rest of the small intestine,[21] and stimulate exocrine pancreatic secretion.[16]

D cell

See main article: Delta cell. Also called Delta cells, D cells secrete somatostatin.

Mo cell (or M cell)

Gastric enteroendocrine cells

Gastric enteroendocrine cells are found in the gastric glands, mostly at their base. The G cells secrete gastrin, post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve can release gastrin-releasing peptide during parasympathetic stimulation to stimulate secretion. Enterochromaffin-like cells are enteroendocrine and neuroendocrine cells also known for their similarity to chromaffin cells secreting histamine, which stimulates G cells to secrete gastrin.

Other hormones produced include cholecystokinin, somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, substance P, alpha and gamma-endorphin.[10] [24]

Pancreatic enteroendocrine cells

Pancreatic enteroendocrine cells are located in the islets of Langerhans and produce most importantly the hormones insulin and glucagon. The autonomous nervous system strongly regulates their secretion, with parasympathetic stimulation stimulating insulin secretion and inhibiting glucagon secretion and sympathetic stimulation having opposite effect.[25]

Other hormones produced include somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, amylin and ghrelin.

Clinical significance

Rare and slow growing carcinoid and non-carcinoid tumors develop from these cells. When a tumor arises it has the capacity to secrete large volumes of hormones.[26]

History

The very discovery of hormones occurred during studies of how the digestive system regulates its activities, as explained at Secretin § Discovery.

Other organisms

In rats (Rattus rattus) the short-chain fatty acid receptor is expressed both by this cell type and by mast cells of the mucosa.[27]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Rehfeld JF . The new biology of gastrointestinal hormones . Physiological Reviews . 78 . 4 . 1087–108 . October 1998 . 9790570 . 10.1152/physrev.1998.78.4.1087 .
  2. Solcia E, Capella C, Buffa R, Usellini L, Fiocca R, Frigerio B, Tenti P, Sessa F . The diffuse endocrine-paracrine system of the gut in health and disease: ultrastructural features . Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. Supplement . 70 . 25–36 . 1981 . 6118945 .
  3. Ahlman H . The gut as the largest endocrine organ in the body . Annals of Oncology . 12 Suppl 2 . suppl 2 . S63–8 . 2001 . 11762354 . 10.1093/annonc/12.suppl_2.s63 . free .
  4. Schonhoff SE, Giel-Moloney M, Leiter AB . Minireview: Development and differentiation of gut endocrine cells . Endocrinology . 145 . 6 . 2639–44 . June 2004 . 15044355 . 10.1210/en.2004-0051 . free . 2013-03-01 . 2013-05-02 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130502034819/http://endo.endojournals.org/content/145/6/2639.long . dead .
  5. Moran GW, Leslie FC, Levison SE, Worthington J, McLaughlin JT . Enteroendocrine cells: neglected players in gastrointestinal disorders? . Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology . 1 . 1 . 51–60 . July 2008 . 21180514 . 3002486 . 10.1177/1756283X08093943 .
  6. Book: Wallace Hayes A . 2007 . Principles and Methods of Toxicology . 5th, revised . CRC Press . 9781420005424 . 1547 .
  7. Sternini C, Anselmi L, Rozengurt E . Enteroendocrine cells: a site of 'taste' in gastrointestinal chemosensing . Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity . 15 . 1 . 73–8 . February 2008 . 18185066 . 2943060 . 10.1097/MED.0b013e3282f43a73 .
  8. Sternini C . Taste receptors in the gastrointestinal tract. IV. Functional implications of bitter taste receptors in gastrointestinal chemosensing . American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology . 292 . 2 . G457–61 . February 2007 . 17095755 . 10.1152/ajpgi.00411.2006 .
  9. Jugder BE, Kamareddine L, Watnick PI . Microbiota-derived acetate activates intestinal innate immunity via the Tip60 histone acetyltransferase complex . Immunity . 54 . 8 . 1683–1697.e3 . August 2021 . 34107298 . 8363570 . 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.05.017 . 1074-7613.
  10. Krause WJ, Yamada J, Cutts JH . Quantitative distribution of enteroendocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract of the adult opossum, Didelphis virginiana . Journal of Anatomy . 140 . 4 . 591–605 . June 1985 . 4077699 . 1165084 .
  11. Watnick PI, Jugder BE . Microbial Control of Intestinal Homeostasis via Enteroendocrine Cell Innate Immune Signaling . Trends Microbiol . 28 . 2 . 141–149 . February 2020 . 31699645 . 6980660 . 10.1016/j.tim.2019.09.005 . 0966-842X.
  12. Parker HE, Habib AM, Rogers GJ, Gribble FM, Reimann F . Nutrient-dependent secretion of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide from primary murine K cells . Diabetologia . 52 . 2 . 289–298 . February 2009 . 19082577 . 4308617 . 10.1007/s00125-008-1202-x .
  13. Gutierrez-Aguilar . Ruth . Woods . Stephen C . Nutrition and L and K-enteroendocrine cells . Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Obesity . February 2011 . 18 . 1 . 35–41 . 10.1097/MED.0b013e32834190b5 . 21124210 . 3884637 .
  14. Drucker DJ, Nauck MA . The incretin system: glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes . Lancet . 368 . 9548 . 1696–705 . November 2006 . 17098089 . 10.1016/s0140-6736(06)69705-5 . 25748028 . 2014-12-31 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141231193325/http://ww.novonordisk.com/images/diabetes/Liraglutide/Drucker-and-Nauck-Lancet-2006.pdf . 2014-12-31 . dead .
  15. Expression of Cholecystokinin and its Receptors in the Intestinal Tract of Type 2 Diabetes Patients and Healthy Controls . 2023-09-20 . The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism . 2021 . 10.1210/clinem/dgab367 . Gilliam-Vigh . Hannah . Jorsal . Tina . Rehfeld . Jens F. . Pedersen . Jens . Poulsen . Steen S. . Vilsbøll . Tina . Knop . Filip K. . 106 . 8 . 2164–2170 . 34036343 . 235203208 . free .
  16. Brubaker PL . A beautiful cell (or two or three?) . Endocrinology . 153 . 7 . 2945–8 . July 2012 . 22730282 . 10.1210/en.2012-1549 . free .
  17. Friis-Hansen L, Sundler F, Li Y, Gillespie PJ, Saunders TL, Greenson JK, Owyang C, Rehfeld JF, Samuelson LC . Impaired gastric acid secretion in gastrin-deficient mice . The American Journal of Physiology . 274 . 3 Pt 1 . G561–8 . March 1998 . 10.1152/ajpgi.1998.274.3.G561 . 9530158 .
  18. Ormsbee HS, Fondacaro JD . Action of serotonin on the gastrointestinal tract . Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine . 178 . 3 . 333–8 . March 1985 . 3919396 . 10.3181/00379727-178-42016. 34829257 .
  19. Expression of Neurotensin and Its Receptors Along the Intestinal Tract in Type 2 Diabetes Patients and Healthy Controls . 2023 . 2023-09-20 . 10.1210/clinem/dgad146 . Gilliam-Vigh . Hannah . Jorsal . Tina . Nielsen . Sophie W. . Forman . Julie L. . Pedersen . Jens . Poulsen . Steen S. . Vilsbøll . Tina . Knop . Filip K. . The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism . 108 . 9 . 2211–2216 . 36916883 . 257506286 .
  20. Kitabgi P, Freychet P . Effects of neurotensin on isolated intestinal smooth muscles . European Journal of Pharmacology . 50 . 4 . 349–57 . August 1978 . 699961 . 10.1016/0014-2999(78)90140-1 .
  21. Expression of Secretin and its Receptor Along the Intestinal Tract in Type 2 Diabetes Patients and Healthy Controls . 2023 . 2023-09-20 . 10.1210/clinem/dgad372 . Gilliam-Vigh . Hannah . Jorsal . Tina . Nielsen . Sophie W. . Forman . Julie L. . Pedersen . Jens . Poulsen . Steen S. . Vilsbøll . Tina . Knop . Filip K. . The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism . 37335970 . 259202375 . free .
  22. Book: Neuropeptide Function in the Gastrointestinal Tract. Daniel EE. 1990-12-11. CRC Press. 9780849361586. en.
  23. Goswami C, Shimada Y, Yoshimura M, Mondal A, Oda S, Tanaka T, Sakai T, Sakata I . Motilin Stimulates Gastric Acid Secretion in Coordination with Ghrelin in Suncus murinus . PLOS ONE . 10 . 6 . e0131554 . 2015-06-26 . 26115342 . 4482737 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0131554 . 2015PLoSO..1031554G . free .
  24. Zverkov IV, Vinogradov VA, Smagin VG . [Endorphin-containing cells in the gastric antral mucosa in duodenal ulcer] . Biulleten' Eksperimental'noi Biologii I Meditsiny . 96 . 10 . 32–4 . October 1983 . 6194833 .
  25. Kiba T . Relationships between the autonomic nervous system and the pancreas including regulation of regeneration and apoptosis: recent developments . Pancreas . 29 . 2 . e51–8 . August 2004 . 15257115 . 10.1097/00006676-200408000-00019 . 15849806 .
  26. Warner RR . Enteroendocrine tumors other than carcinoid: a review of clinically significant advances . Gastroenterology . 128 . 6 . 1668–84 . May 2005 . 15887158 . 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.03.078 . free .
  27. Camilleri M . Peripheral mechanisms in irritable bowel syndrome . N Engl J Med . 367 . 17 . 1626–35 . October 2012 . 23094724 . 10.1056/NEJMra1207068. 0028-4793.

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