Dynasties of China explained

For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great,[1] and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties. Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[2]

Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of periodization.[3] Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.[4] For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as "Ming porcelain".[5]

The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography.[6] The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

The term "" (Chinese: 天朝; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.[12] [13] As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as "" (Chinese: 天朝上國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "" (Chinese: 天朝大國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State").

Terminology

The Chinese character originally meant "morning" or "today". Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include:

History

Start of dynastic rule

As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.[14] In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors.[15] By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs.[16] This concept, known as (Chinese: 家天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of (Chinese: 公天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the abdication system.[15] [17]

There may also be a predynastic period before a regime managed to overthrow the existing dynasty which led to the official establishment of the new dynasty. For example, the state of Zhou that existed during the Shang dynasty, before its conquest of the Shang which led to the establishment of the Zhou dynasty, is referred to as the Predynastic Zhou[18] or Proto-Zhou.[19] Similarly, the state of Qin that existed during the Zhou dynasty before its wars of unification and the establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC is also referred to as the Predynastic Qin[20] [21] or Proto-Qin.[22]

Dynastic transition

The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.[23] This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle.[23] [24] [25]

Cases of dynastic transition (Chinese: 改朝換代;) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.[26] The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.[27]

One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.[28] For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662.[29] [30] The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.[31] Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively.[32] [33] [34] This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.

Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (Chinese: ; by Li Mi), Qin (Chinese: ; by Xue Ju), Qi (Chinese: ; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (Chinese: ; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (Chinese: ; by Shen Faxing), Liang (Chinese: ; by Liang Shidu), Xia (Chinese: ; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (Chinese: ; by Wang Shichong), Chu (Chinese: ; by Zhu Can), Chu (Chinese: ; by Lin Shihong), Wu (Chinese: ; by Li Zitong), Yan (Chinese: ; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (Chinese: ; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.[35]

Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the "two crownings, three respects" system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former.[36] Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.[37]

According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories.[38] This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.[39]

End of dynastic rule

Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.[40] [41] While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.

During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (Chinese: [[:zh:孔令貽|孔令貽]]), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao.[42] Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (Chinese: 朱煜勳), the Marquis of Extended Grace.[43] Both suggestions were ultimately rejected.

The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later.[44] The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days.[45] Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.[46] Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.[40]

Political legitimacy

China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.

Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven.[47] Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (Chinese: [[:zh:法統|正統]];) are termed (Chinese: ; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as (Chinese: ; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.[48]

Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods:

Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.[72] From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.[72]

Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time.[57] Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:[57]

These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China principle and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.[73]

Agnatic lineages

There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins.

Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.

The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:

Classification

Central Plain dynasties

The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (Chinese: [[:zh:中原王朝|中原王朝]];) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain.[79] This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.[79]

Unified dynasties

"Unified dynasties" (Chinese: 大一統王朝;) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (Chinese: 中華帝國;).[80] [81]

The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (Chinese: 大一統;) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao.[82] [83] [84] Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.[85] [86]

Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty.[87] [88] The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.[87] [89]

Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties

See main article: Conquest dynasty.

According to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.[90]

"Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (Chinese: [[:zh:滲透王朝|滲透王朝]];) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society.[90] For instance, the Han-Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.[90]

"Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (Chinese: 征服王朝;) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities.[90] [91] For example, the Liao dynasty and the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.[90]

These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.[92]

Naming convention

Official nomenclature

It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the (Chinese: [[:zh:国号|國號]]; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.[93] [94] During the rule of a dynasty, its functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.

The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources:

There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently.[101]

The official title of several dynasties bore the character "" (Chinese: ; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.[102] [103] However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character "".[104] [105] It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it.[103] For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the Tang dynasty as "" (Japanese: 大唐; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang".

While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with (Chinese: 中國; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts) and various other names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title.[106] [107] Although the Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed ""—and its Manchu equivalent "Dulimbai Gurun" —in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing".[108] [109] "", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.[110]

The adoption of, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared for their respective realm.

Retroactive nomenclature

In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the "Great Jin".

When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.[3] [28] [111] Frequently used prefixes include:

A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Western Han is also known as the "Former Han", and the Yang Wu is also called the "Southern Wu".[112] [113]

Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song.[114] In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin, the Southern Liang, and the Tang dynasty; the first two were interrupted by the Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the Wu Zhou.[115] [116] [117]

In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (Chinese: ;) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty".[118]

Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.[119]

Territorial extent

While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains.[120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] [126] [127] [128] [129] [130] [131] [132]

At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong),[120] [121] [122] Taiwan,[123] Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria),[124] [125] Sakhalin,[126] [127] Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia),[125] [128] Vietnam,[129] [133] Tibet,[124] [125] Xinjiang,[130] as well as parts of Central Asia,[125] [126] the Korean Peninsula,[131] Afghanistan,[132] [134] and Siberia.[125]

Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast, with its western boundary with the Golden Horde in Siberia delimited by the Ob and the Irtysh.[135] [136] [137] In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined.

Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Chinese tributary system.[138] The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order broke down.[139] [140]

The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.[11] [141] [142] [143] [144]

List of major Chinese dynasties

This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.

Major dynasties of China
DynastyRuling housePeriod of ruleRulers
Name
Surname
EthnicityStatusYearTermFounderLast monarchList / Family tree
Semi-legendary

Chinese: 夏朝


Si
Chinese:
HuaxiaRoyal2070–1600 BC[145] 470 yearsYu of XiaJie of Xia(list)
(tree)
Ancient China

Chinese: 商朝


Zi
Chinese:
HuaxiaRoyal1600–1046 BC[146] 554 yearsTang of ShangZhou of Shang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西周


Ji
Chinese:
HuaxiaRoyal1046–771 BC[147] 275 yearsWu of ZhouYou of Zhou(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 東周


Ji
Chinese:
HuaxiaRoyal770–256 BC514 yearsPing of ZhouNan of Zhou(list)
(tree)
Early Imperial China

Chinese: 秦朝


Ying
Chinese:
HuaxiaImperial

Royal
221–207 BC[148] 14 yearsQin Shi HuangYing Ziying(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西漢


Liu
Chinese:
HanImperial202 BC–AD 9[149] 211 yearsGao of HanLiu Ying(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 新朝


Wang
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 9–23[150] 14 yearsWang Mang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 東漢


Liu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 25–220[151] 195 yearsGuangwu of HanXian of Han(list)
(tree)
Three Kingdoms
Chinese: 三國


AD 220–280[152] 60 years(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 曹魏


Cao
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 220–266[153] 46 yearsWen of Cao WeiYuan of Cao Wei(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 蜀漢


Liu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 221–263[154] 42 yearsZhaolie of Shu HanHuai of Shu Han(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 東吳


Sun
Chinese:
HanRoyal

Imperial
AD 222–280[155] 58 yearsDa of Eastern WuSun Hao(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西晉


Sima
Chinese: 司馬
HanImperialAD 266–316[156] 50 yearsWu of JinMin of Jin(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 東晉


Sima
Chinese: 司馬
HanImperialAD 317–420[157] 103 yearsYuan of JinGong of Jin(list)
(tree)
Sixteen Kingdoms
Chinese: 十六國


AD 304–439[158] 135 years(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 漢趙


Liu
Chinese:
XiongnuRoyal

Imperial
AD 304–329[159] 25 yearsGuangwen of Han-ZhaoLiu Yao(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 成漢


Li
Chinese:
DiPrincely

Imperial
AD 304–347[160] 43 yearsWu of Cheng-HanLi Shi(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後趙


Shi
Chinese:
JieRoyal

Imperial

Princely
AD 319–351[161] 32 yearsMing of Later ZhaoShi Zhi(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 前涼


Zhang
Chinese:
HanPrincely

Imperial

Ducal
AD 320–376[162] 56 yearsCheng of Former LiangDao of Former Liang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 前燕


Murong
Chinese: 慕容
XianbeiPrincely

Imperial
AD 337–370[163] 33 yearsWenming of Former YanYou of Former Yan(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 前秦


Fu
Chinese:
DiImperialAD 351–39443 yearsJingming of Former QinFu Chong(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後燕


Murong
Chinese: 慕容
XianbeiPrincely

Imperial
AD 384–409[164] 25 yearsChengwu of Later YanZhaowen of Later Yan
Huiyi of Yan
(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後秦


Yao
Chinese:
QiangRoyal

Imperial
AD 384–417[165] 33 yearsWuzhao of Later QinYao Hong(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西秦


Qifu
Chinese: 乞伏
XianbeiPrincelyAD 385–400, AD 409–431[166] 37 yearsXuanlie of Western QinQifu Mumo(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後涼



Chinese:
DiDucal

Princely

Imperial
AD 386–403[167] 17 yearsYiwu of Later LiangLü Long(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 南涼


Tufa
Chinese: 禿髮
XianbeiPrincelyAD 397–404, AD 408–414[168] 13 yearsWu of Southern LiangJing of Southern Liang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北涼


Juqu
Chinese: 沮渠
LushuihuDucal

Princely
AD 397–439[169] 42 yearsDuan YeAi of Northern Liang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 南燕


Murong
Chinese: 慕容
XianbeiPrincely

Imperial
AD 398–410[170] 12 yearsXianwu of Southern YanMurong Chao(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西涼


Li
Chinese:
HanDucalAD 400–421[171] 21 yearsWuzhao of Western LiangLi Xun(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 胡夏


Helian
Chinese: 赫連
XiongnuImperialAD 407–431[172] 24 yearsWulie of Hu XiaHelian Ding(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北燕


Feng
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 407–436[173] 29 yearsHuiyi of Yan
Wencheng of Northern Yan
Zhaocheng of Northern Yan(list)
(tree)
Northern dynasties
Chinese: 北朝


AD 386–581[174] 195 years(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北魏


Tuoba
Chinese: 拓跋
XianbeiPrincely

Imperial
AD 386–535[175] 149 yearsDaowu of Northern WeiXiaowu of Northern Wei(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 東魏


Yuan
Chinese:
XianbeiImperialAD 534–550[176] 16 yearsXiaojing of Eastern Wei(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西魏


Yuan
Chinese:
XianbeiImperialAD 535–55722 yearsWen of Western WeiGong of Western Wei(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北齊


Gao
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 550–57727 yearsWenxuan of Northern QiGao Heng(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北周


Yuwen
Chinese: 宇文
XianbeiImperialAD 557–58124 yearsXiaomin of Northern ZhouJing of Northern Zhou(list)
(tree)
Southern dynasties
Chinese: 南朝


AD 420–589[177] 169 years(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 劉宋


Liu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 420–479[178] 59 yearsWu of Liu SongShun of Liu Song(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 南齊


Xiao
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 479–502[179] 23 yearsGao of Southern QiHe of Southern Qi(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 梁朝


Xiao
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 502–557[180] 55 yearsWu of LiangJing of Liang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 陳朝


Chen
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 557–589[181] 32 yearsWu of ChenChen Shubao(list)
(tree)
Middle Imperial China

Chinese: 隋朝


Yang
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 581–619[182] 38 yearsWen of SuiGong of Sui(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 唐朝


Li
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 618–690, AD 705–907[183] 274 yearsGaozu of TangAi of Tang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 武周


Wu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 690–705[184] 15 yearsShengshen of Wu Zhou(list)
(tree)
Five Dynasties
Chinese: 五代


AD 907–960[185] 53 years(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後梁


Zhu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 907–923[186] 16 yearsTaizu of Later LiangZhu Youzhen(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後唐


Li
Chinese:
ShatuoImperialAD 923–937[187] 14 yearsZhuangzong of Later TangLi Congke(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後晉


Shi
Chinese:
ShatuoImperialAD 936–947[188] 11 yearsGaozu of Later JinChu of Later Jin(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後漢


Liu
Chinese:
ShatuoImperialAD 947–9514 yearsGaozu of Later HanYin of Later Han(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後周


Guo
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 951–9609 yearsTaizu of Later ZhouGong of Later Zhou(list)
(tree)
Ten Kingdoms
Chinese: 十國


AD 907–979[189] 72 years(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 前蜀


Wang
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 907–925[190] 18 yearsGaozu of Former ShuWang Yan(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 楊吳


Yang
Chinese:
HanPrincely

Royal

Imperial
AD 907–937[191] 30 yearsLiezu of Yang WuRui of Yang Wu(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 馬楚


Ma
Chinese:
HanRoyal

Princely
AD 907–951[192] 44 yearsWumu of Ma ChuMa Xichong(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 吳越


Qian
Chinese:
HanRoyal

Princely
AD 907–97871 yearsTaizu of WuyueZhongyi of Qin(list)
(tree)

Chinese:


Wang
Chinese:
HanPrincely

Imperial
AD 909–94536 yearsTaizu of MinTiande(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 南漢


Liu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 917–97154 yearsGaozu of Southern HanLiu Chang(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 荊南


Gao
Chinese:
HanPrincelyAD 924–96339 yearsWuxin of ChuGao Jichong(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後蜀


Meng
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 934–96531 yearsGaozu of Later ShuGongxiao of Chu(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 南唐


Li
Chinese:
HanImperial

Royal
AD 937–976[193] 37 yearsLiezu of Southern TangLi Yu(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北漢


Liu
Chinese:
ShatuoImperialAD 951–979[194] 28 yearsShizu of Northern HanYingwu of Northern Han(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 遼朝


Yelü
Chinese: 耶律
KhitanImperialAD 916–1125[195] 209 yearsTaizu of LiaoTianzuo of Liao(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西遼


Yelü
Chinese: 耶律
KhitanRoyal

Imperial
AD 1124–1218[196] 94 yearsDezong of Western LiaoKuchlug(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北宋


Zhao
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 960–1127[197] 167 yearsTaizu of SongQinzong of Song(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 南宋


Zhao
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 1127–1279[198] 152 yearsGaozong of SongZhao Bing(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 西夏


Weiming
Chinese: 嵬名
TangutImperialAD 1038–1227[199] 189 yearsJingzong of Western XiaLi Xian(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 金朝


Wanyan
Chinese: 完顏
JurchenImperialAD 1115–1234[200] 119 yearsTaizu of JinWanyan Chenglin(list)
(tree)
Late Imperial China

Chinese: 元朝


Borjigin
Chinese: 孛兒只斤
MongolImperialAD 1271–1368[201] 97 yearsShizu of YuanHuizong of Yuan(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 北元


Borjigin
Chinese: 孛兒只斤
MongolImperialAD 1368–1635[202] 267 yearsHuizong of YuanBorjigin Erke Khongghor(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 明朝


Zhu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 1368–1644[203] 276 yearsHongwuChongzhen(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 南明


Zhu
Chinese:
HanImperialAD 1644–1662[204] 18 yearsHongguangYongli(list)
(tree)

Chinese: 後金


Aisin Gioro
Chinese: 愛新覺羅
JurchenRoyalAD 1616–1636[205] 20 yearsTianmingTaizong of Qing(list)
(tree)


Chinese: 清朝


Aisin Gioro
Chinese: 愛新覺羅
ManchuImperialAD 1636–1912[206] 276 yearsTaizong of QingXuantong(list)
(tree)

Timelines

Timeline of major regimes

ImageSize = width:1600 height:auto barincrement:15PlotArea = top:10 bottom:30 right:210 left:20AlignBars = early

DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:-2500 till:2000TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-2500

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Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas

BarData = barset:Regimes

PlotData= width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till barset:Regimes

from: -2500 till: -2070 color:PD text:"Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors (before 2070 BC)" from: -2070 till: -1600 color:DY text:"Xia (2070 - 1600 BC)" from: -1600 till: -1046 color:DY text:"Shang (1600 - 1046 BC)" from: -1046 till: -771 color:DY text:"W. Zhou (1046 - 771 BC)" from: -770 till: -256 color:DY text:"E. Zhou (770 - 256 BC)" from: -221 till: -207 color:DY text:"Qin (221 - 207 BC)" from: -202 till: 9 color:DY text:"W. Han (202 BC - AD 9)" from: 9 till: 23 color:DY text:"Xin (AD 9 - 23)" from: 25 till: 220 color:DY text:"E. Han (AD 25 - 220)" from: 220 till: 266 color:DY text:"Cao Wei (AD 220 - 266)" from: 221 till: 263 color:DY text:"Shu Han (AD 221 - 263)" from: 222 till: 280 color:DY text:"E. Wu (AD 222 - 280)" from: 266 till: 316 color:DY text:"W. Jin (AD 266 - 316)" from: 304 till: 329 color:DY text:"Han-Zhao (AD 304 - 329)" from: 304 till: 347 color:DY text:"Cheng-Han (AD 304 - 347)" from: 317 till: 420 color:DY text:"E. Jin (AD 317 - 420)" from: 319 till: 351 color:DY text:"L. Zhao (AD 319 - 351)" from: 320 till: 376 color:DY text:"F. Liang (AD 320 - 376)" from: 337 till: 370 color:DY text:"F. Yan (AD 337 - 370)" from: 351 till: 394 color:DY text:"F. Qin (AD 351 - 394)" from: 384 till: 409 color:DY text:"L. Yan (AD 384 - 409)" from: 384 till: 417 color:DY text:"L. Qin (AD 384 - 417)" from: 385 till: 400 color:DY text:"W. Qin (pre-interregnum; AD 385 - 400)" from: 386 till: 403 color:DY text:"L. Liang (AD 386 - 403)" from: 386 till: 535 color:DY text:"N. Wei (AD 386 - 535)" from: 397 till: 414 color:DY text:"S. Liang (AD 397 - 414)" from: 397 till: 439 color:DY text:"N. Liang (AD 397 - 439)" from: 398 till: 410 color:DY text:"S. Yan (AD 398 - 410)" from: 400 till: 421 color:DY text:"W. Liang (AD 400 - 421)" from: 407 till: 431 color:DY text:"Hu Xia (AD 407 - 431)" from: 407 till: 436 color:DY text:"N. Yan (AD 407 - 436)" from: 409 till: 431 color:DY text:"W. Qin (restored; AD 409 - 431)" from: 420 till: 479 color:DY text:"Liu Song (AD 420 - 479)" from: 479 till: 502 color:DY text:"S. Qi (AD 479 - 502)" from: 502 till: 557 color:DY text:"Liang (AD 502 - 557)" from: 534 till: 550 color:DY text:"E. Wei (AD 534 - 550)" from: 535 till: 557 color:DY text:"W. Wei (AD 535 - 557)" from: 550 till: 577 color:DY text:"N. Qi (AD 550 - 577)" from: 557 till: 581 color:DY text:"N. Zhou (AD 557 - 581)" from: 557 till: 589 color:DY text:"Chen (AD 557 - 589)" from: 581 till: 619 color:DY text:"Sui (AD 581 - 619)" from: 618 till: 690 color:DY text:"Tang (pre-interregnum; AD 618 - 690)" from: 690 till: 705 color:DY text:"Wu Zhou (AD 690 - 705)" from: 705 till: 907 color:DY text:"Tang (restored; AD 705 - 907)" from: 907 till: 923 color:DY text:"L. Liang (AD 907 - 923)" from: 907 till: 925 color:DY text:"F. Shu (AD 907 - 925)" from: 907 till: 937 color:DY text:"Yang Wu (AD 907 - 937)" from: 907 till: 951 color:DY text:"Ma Chu (AD 907 - 951)" from: 907 till: 978 color:DY text:"Wuyue (AD 907 - 978)" from: 909 till: 945 color:DY text:"Min (AD 909 - 945)" from: 916 till: 1125 color:DY text:"Liao (AD 916 - 1125)" from: 917 till: 971 color:DY text:"S. Han (AD 917 - 971)" from: 923 till: 937 color:DY text:"L. Tang (AD 923 - 937)" from: 924 till: 963 color:DY text:"Jingnan (AD 924 - 963)" from: 934 till: 965 color:DY text:"L. Shu (AD 934 - 965)" from: 936 till: 947 color:DY text:"L. Jin (AD 936 - 947)" from: 937 till: 976 color:DY text:"S. Tang (AD 937 - 976)" from: 947 till: 951 color:DY text:"L. Han (AD 947 - 951)" from: 951 till: 960 color:DY text:"L. Zhou (AD 951 - 960)" from: 951 till: 979 color:DY text:"N. Han (AD 951 - 979)" from: 960 till: 1127 color:DY text:"N. Song (AD 960 - 1127)" from: 1038 till: 1227 color:DY text:"W. Xia (AD 1038 - 1227)" from: 1115 till: 1234 color:DY text:"Jin (AD 1115 - 1234)" from: 1124 till: 1218 color:DY text:"W. Liao (AD 1124 - 1218)" from: 1127 till: 1279 color:DY text:"S. Song (AD 1127 - 1279)" from: 1271 till: 1368 color:DY text:"Yuan (AD 1271 - 1368)" from: 1368 till: 1635 color:DY text:"N. Yuan (AD 1368 - 1635)" from: 1368 till: 1644 color:DY text:"Ming (AD 1368 - 1644)" from: 1616 till: 1636 color:DY text:"L. Jin (AD 1616 - 1636)" from: 1636 till: 1912 color:DY text:"Qing (AD 1636 - 1912)" from: 1644 till: 1662 color:DY text:"S. Ming (AD 1644 - 1662)" from: 1912 till: 2000 color:ND text:"ROC (AD 1912 - present)" from: 1949 till: 2000 color:ND text:"PRC (AD 1949 - present)"

barset:skip

See also

References

Sources

External links

Notes and References

  1. Xueqin . Li . 2002-01-01 . The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results . Journal of East Asian Archaeology . en . 4 . 1 . 332 . 10.1163/156852302322454585 . 1387-6813.
  2. Book: Skutsch. Carl. Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. 2013. 287. 9781135193881.
  3. Book: Keay. John. China: A History. 2010. 9780007372089.
  4. Book: Wang. Yeyang. Zhao. Qingyun. 当代中国近代史理论研究. 2016. 9787516188231.
  5. Book: Atwell, William. Ming China and the Emerging World Economy. Twitchett. Denis. Fairbank. John. Mote. Frederick. The Cambridge History of China. 1978. https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&q=ming+porcelain&pg=PA395. 394–395. 9780521243339.
  6. Book: Sadow. Lauren. Peeters. Bert. Mullan. Kerry. Studies in Ethnopragmatics, Cultural Semantics, and Intercultural Communication: Minimal English (and Beyond). 2019. 100. 9789813299795.
  7. Book: Bauch. Martin. Schenk. Gerrit. The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?. 2019. 153. 9783110660784.
  8. Book: Ruan. Jiening. Zhang. Jie. Leung. Cynthia. Chinese Language Education in the United States. 2015. 9. 9783319213088.
  9. Book: Wei. Chao-hsin. The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World. 1988. 17.
  10. Book: Adler. Philip. Pouwels. Randall. World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700. 2011. 373. 9781133171065.
  11. Book: Rowe. William. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. 2010. 1. 9780674054554.
  12. Book: Nevius. John. John Livingstone Nevius. China and the Chinese. 1869. 22. 9788120606906.
  13. Book: Wang. Hongsheng. 历史的瀑布与峡谷:中华文明的文化结构和现代转型. 2007. 139. 9787300081830.
  14. Book: Ebrey. Patricia. Liu. Kwang-Ching. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. 2010. 10. 9780521124331.
  15. Book: Chan. Joseph. Confucian Perfectionism: A Political Philosophy for Modern Times. 2013. 213. 9781400848690.
  16. Book: Whitaker. Donald. Shinn. Rinn-Sup. Area Handbook for the People's Republic of China. 1972. 37.
  17. Book: Qi. Zhixiang. 中國現當代人學史:思想演變的時代特徵及其歷史軌跡. 2016. 21. 9789869244923.
  18. Book: Archaeology of East Asia: The Rise of Civilization in China, Korea and Japan. Gina L. Barnes. Oxbow Books. 2015. 9781785700712. 45.
  19. Book: The Lloyd Cotsen Study Collection of Chinese Bronze Mirrors: Volume 2. Lothar von Falkenhausen. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. 2012. 9781950446445. 44.
  20. Book: The Archaeology of Early China . Gideon Shelach-Lavi. Gideon Shelach-Lavi. Cambridge University Press. 2015. 9780521196895. 314.
  21. Book: Age of Empires: Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties. Zhixin Sun. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2017. 9781588396174. 33.
  22. Book: Chinese Society in the Age of Confucius (1000-250 BC). Lothar von Falkenhausen. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. 2006. 9781938770456. 235.
  23. Book: Perdue. Peter. China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. 2009. 6. 9780674042025.
  24. Book: Elleman. Bruce. Paine. Sarah. Modern China: Continuity and Change, 1644 to the Present. 2019. 19. 9781538103876.
  25. Book: Zheng. Yongnian. Huang. Yanjie. Market in State: The Political Economy of Domination in China. 2018. 83. 9781108473446.
  26. Web site: 我国古代改朝换代的方式不外乎两种,哪种才是主流?. 18 November 2019.
  27. Book: Fan. Shuzhi. 国史精讲. 2007. 99. 9787309055634.
  28. Book: Wilkinson. Endymion. Chinese History: A Manual. 2000. 14. 9780674002494.
  29. Book: Perkins. Dorothy. Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. 2013. 1. 9781135935627.
  30. Book: Di Cosmo. Nicola. The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo. 2007. 1. 9781135789558.
  31. Book: Elman. Benjamin. A Cultural History of Modern Science in China. 2006. 46. 9780674023062.
  32. Book: Tanner. Harold. China: A History. 2009. 335. 978-0872209152.
  33. Book: Pines. Yuri. The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy. 2012. 157. 978-0691134956.
  34. Book: Mote. Frederick. Imperial China 900-1800. 2003. 798. 9780674012127.
  35. Book: Skaff. Jonathan. Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800. 2012. 80. 9780199734139.
  36. Book: Gong. Yin. 中国民族政策史. 2006. 253. 9787220071041.
  37. Book: Zhang. Cheng. 禅让:中国历史上的一种权力游戏. 2007. 200. 9787801066961.
  38. Book: Stunkel. Kenneth. Fifty Key Works of History and Historiography. 2012. 143. 9781136723667.
  39. Book: Horner. Charles. Rising China and Its Postmodern Fate: Memories of Empire in a New Global Context. 2010. 59. 9780820335889.
  40. Book: Moody. Alys. Ross. Stephen. Global Modernists on Modernism: An Anthology. 2020. 282. 9781474242349.
  41. Book: Grosse. Christine. The Global Manager's Guide to Cultural Literacy. 2019. 71. 9781527533875.
  42. Book: Rošker. Jana. Suhadolnik. Nataša. Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change. 2014. 74. 9781443867726.
  43. Book: Aldrich. M. A.. The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages. 2008. 176. 9789622097773.
  44. Book: Schillinger. Nicholas. The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers. 2016. 176. 9781498531696.
  45. Book: Hao. Shiyuan. China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues. 2019. 51. 9789813295193.
  46. Book: Wells. Anne. The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan. 2009. 167. 9780810870260.
  47. Book: Wu. Bin. Government Performance Management in China: Theory and Practice. 2019. 44–45. 9789811382253.
  48. Web site: 历史上的国和代到底有什么区别?. 18 November 2019. 15 January 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200115035420/http://www.todayonhistory.com/people/201910/36697.html. dead.
  49. Book: Besio. Kimberly. Three Kingdoms and Chinese Culture. 2012. 64. 9780791480496.
  50. Baaquie. Belal Ehsan. Wang. Qing-Hai. 2018. Chinese Dynasties and Modern China: Unification and Fragmentation. China and the World: Ancient and Modern Silk Road. 1. 1. 5. 10.1142/S2591729318500037. free.
  51. Book: Nosco. Peter. Confucianism and Tokugawa Culture. 1997. 68. 9780824818654.
  52. Book: Holcombe. Charles. A History of East Asia. 2017. 62–63. 9781107118737.
  53. Book: Yang. Shao-yun. The Way of the Barbarians: Redrawing Ethnic Boundaries in Tang and Song China. 2019. 63. 9780295746012.
  54. Book: Chen. Huaiyu. The Revival of Buddhist Monasticism in Medieval China. 2007. 24. 9780820486246.
  55. Book: Wakeman. Frederic. The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1. 1985. 446. 9780520048041.
  56. Book: Liu. Pujiang. 正统与华夷:中国传统政治文化研究. 2017. 9787101125795.
  57. Book: Lee. Thomas. Education in Traditional China: A History. 2000. 238. 9004103635.
  58. Book: Ng. On Cho. Wang. Edward. Mirroring the Past: The Writing And Use of History in Imperial China. 2005. 177. 9780824829131.
  59. Web site: 宋和辽究竟哪个才是正统王朝?. 18 November 2019. 31 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200731074611/https://xw.qq.com/partner/hwbrowser/20191010A0H8X2/20191010A0H8X200?ADTAG=hwb&pgv_ref=hwb&appid=hwbrowser&ctype=news. dead.
  60. Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 52.
  61. Book: Biran. Michal. The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World. 2005. 93. 9780521842266.
  62. Web site: 试论清人的辽金"正统观"——以辽宋金"三史分修""各与正统"问题讨论为中心. 18 November 2019.
  63. Book: Zhang. Feng. Chinese Hegemony: Grand Strategy and International Institutions in East Asian History. 2015. 126. 9780804795043.
  64. Okada. Hidehiro. 2002. Dayan Khan as a Yuan Emperor : The Political Legitimacy in 15th Century Mongolia. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 81. 53. 7 March 2022.
  65. Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 54.
  66. Book: Chan. Wing-ming. East Asian History, Issues 19-20. 2000. 30.
  67. Book: Fang. Weigui. Modern Notions of Civilization and Culture in China. 2019. 30. 9789811335587.
  68. Book: Baldanza. Kathlene. Ming China and Vietnam. 2016. 206. 9781107124240.
  69. Book: Davis. Bret. The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Philosophy. 2019. 294. 9780199945726.
  70. Book: Ng. Wai-ming. Imagining China in Tokugawa Japan: Legends, Classics, and Historical Terms. 2019. xvii. 9781438473086.
  71. Book: Zhang. Xiaoling. 從現代到後現代的自我追尋:夏目漱石與村上春樹的比較研究. 2014. 224. 9789863263012.
  72. Book: Wu. Huaiqi. An Historical Sketch of Chinese Historiography. 2018. 322. 9783662562536.
  73. Book: Hudson. Christopher. The China Handbook. 2014. 59. 9781134269662.
  74. Book: Law. Eugene. Best of China. 2004. 11. 9787508504292.
  75. Book: Li. Xiaobing. China at War: An Encyclopedia. 2012. 485. 9781598844160.
  76. Book: Mao. Zengyin. 三字经与中国民俗画. 2005. 90. 9787508507996.
  77. Book: Wang. Yong. 东亚文化环流十讲. 2018. 27. 9787313200105.
  78. Book: Wang. Shoufa. 中国政治制度史. 2002. 80. 9787209030762.
  79. Book: Li. Xiaobing. Shan. Patrick. Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance. 2015. 5. 9781498507295.
  80. Web site: Chinese Empire. 9 January 2020.
  81. Web site: 经常提到的波斯帝国,那你知道波斯第一、第二、第三帝国吗?. 13 January 2020.
  82. Book: Feng. Tianyu. Yang. Hua. 中国文化发展轨迹. 2000. 111. 9787208034600.
  83. Book: Jia. Bingqiang. Zhu. Xiaohong. 图说治水与中华文明. 2015. 9787517031246.
  84. Book: Wang. Xilong. 历史文化探研──兰州大学历史文化学院专门史论文集. 2009. 9787542114525.
  85. Book: Yang. Faxing. 世界伟人传记丛书(上). 2015.
  86. Book: Gao. Qi. 传统文化与治国理政. 2018. 9787101127669.
  87. Web site: 中国历史上十个大一统王朝,其中四个国祚不过百年. 18 November 2019.
  88. Web site: 我国历史上这两大王朝均是大一统王朝,却教科书上却极少被提及. 24 January 2020.
  89. Book: Graff. David. Higham. Robin. A Military History of China. 2012. 70–71. 978-0813140674.
  90. Zhang. Fan. 2018. Characteristics of the Yuan dynasty: Reflections on several issues from Mongol Yuan history. Chinese Studies in History. 51. 1. 52. 10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564. 165215790. 2 January 2021.
  91. Book: van de Ven. Hans. Warfare in Chinese History. 2000. 77. 9004117741.
  92. Book: Bulag. Uradyn. Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier. 2010. 56–57. 9781442204331.
  93. Wilkinson (2000). pp. 13–14.
  94. Book: Zhu. Fayuan. Wu. Qixing. 中国文化ABC. 2000. 9787210045892.
  95. Web site: 历代王朝国号的分类. 18 November 2019.
  96. Web site: 名不正则言不顺:中国各朝代名称、国号的由来. 18 November 2019.
  97. Web site: 唐朝的皇帝姓李,为什么不叫李朝而叫唐朝?. 18 November 2019.
  98. Web site: 先秦时期的诸侯国名,哪些最受后世的青睐?. 18 November 2019. 31 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132305/https://new.qq.com/omn/20180701/20180701A024FI.html. dead.
  99. Web site: 后周皇帝列表及简介 后周太祖世宗恭帝简介 后周是怎么灭亡的. 18 November 2019.
  100. Book: Hung. Hing Ming. From the Mongols to the Ming Dynasty: How a Begging Monk Became Emperor of China, Zhu Yuan Zhang. 2016. 13. 9781628941524.
  101. Web site: 南越国与南汉国. 18 November 2019. 31 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132304/http://www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm. dead.
  102. Book: Hu. Axiang. Song. Yanmei. 中国国号的故事. 2008. 171. 9787807135999.
  103. Web site: 明朝为何定国号为"大明",绝大部分人只知道五个原因中的一个. 6 January 2020.
  104. Web site: 辽朝国号考释. 6 January 2020. 31 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132305/http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478. dead.
  105. Book: Chan. Hok-lam. 金宋史論叢. 2003. 4–5. 9789629960971.
  106. Book: Fogel. Joshua. The Cultural Dimensions of Sino-Japanese Relations: Essays on the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. 2015. 66. 9781317457671.
  107. Book: Xie. Xuanjun. 士商工农──等级制度构建文明社会. 2016. 379. 9781329980136.
  108. Book: Wang. Yuanchong. Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. 2018. 52–53. 9781501730511.
  109. Book: Wang. Fei-Ling. The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power. 2017. 11. 9781438467504.
  110. Book: Kang. Jung In. Western-Centrism and Contemporary Korean Political Thought. 2015. 71. 9780739180990.
  111. Web site: 为何中国古代的一些朝代前要加上"东西南北",比如"西汉"呢?. 18 November 2019.
  112. Book: Loewe. Michael. The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE – 220 CE. 2006. vi. 9781603840576.
  113. Web site: 五代十国时期的十国政权之一:南吴的发展史. 8 August 2020.
  114. Book: Chan. Chi Chuen. Li. William. Chiu. Amy. The Psychology of Chinese Gambling: A Cultural and Historical Perspective. 2019. 21. 9789811334863.
  115. Web site: 先秦、秦国、秦朝、前秦、后秦、西秦是什么关系?. 4 August 2020.
  116. Book: Lü. Simian. 两晋南北朝史(第一册). 2020. 9787999131410.
  117. Web site: 汉分东西汉因为中间有新莽为什么唐朝中间有武周却不分东西唐. 4 August 2020.
  118. Book: Yuan. Haiwang. This is China: The First 5,000 Years. 2010. 40. 9781933782768.
  119. Book: Hammond. Kenneth. Beezley. William. DeBlasi. Anthony. MacLachlan. Colin. The Human Tradition in Premodern China. 2002. 77. 9780842029599.
  120. Book: Brødsgaard. Kjeld. Hainan – State, Society, and Business in a Chinese Province. 2008. 11. 9781134045471.
  121. Book: Wong. Koon-kwai. Hong Kong, Macau and the Pearl River Delta: A Geographical Survey. 2009. 241–242. 9789882004757.
  122. Book: Zhang. Wei Bin. Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery and Chinese Docile-diligence. 2006. 3. 9781594546006.
  123. Book: Hughes. Christopher. Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society. 2013. 21. 9781134727551.
  124. Book: Hsu. Cho-yun. China: A New Cultural History. 2012. 421. 9780231528184.
  125. Book: Lockard. Craig. Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. 2020. 260. 9780357365472.
  126. Book: Gan. Chunsong. A Concise Reader of Chinese Culture. 2019. 24. 9789811388675.
  127. Book: Westad. Odd. Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750. 2012. 11. 9780465029365.
  128. Book: Sanders. Alan. Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. 2003. v. 9780810866010.
  129. Book: Paige. Jeffrey. Agrarian Revolution. 1978. 278. 9780029235508.
  130. Book: Clarke. Michael. Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia - A History. 2011. 16. 9781136827068.
  131. Book: Kshetry. Gopal. Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. 2008. 25. 9781469102443.
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  135. Book: History of the World Map by Map. 2018. 133. 9780241379189. D. K.
  136. Book: Tan. Qixiang. The Historical Atlas of China. 1982. 元时期全图(一). http://www.guoxue123.com/other/map/pic/14/01.jpg.
  137. Book: Tan. Qixiang. The Historical Atlas of China. 1982. 元时期全图(二). http://www.guoxue123.com/other/map/pic/14/20.jpg.
  138. Book: Kavalski. Emilian. Asian Thought on China's Changing International Relations. 2014. 56–57. 9781137299338.
  139. Book: Rand. Christopher. Military Thought in Early China. 2017. 142. 9781438465180.
  140. Book: Brown. Kerry. China's 19th Party Congress: Start Of A New Era. 2018. 197. 9781786345936.
  141. Tanner (2009). p. 419.
  142. Book: Esherick. Joseph. Kayali. Hasan. Van Young. Eric. Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. 2006. 245. 9780742578159.
  143. Book: Zhai. Zhiyong. 憲法何以中國. 2017. 190. 9789629373214.
  144. Book: Gao. Quanxi. 政治憲法與未來憲制. 2016. 273. 9789629372910.
  145. Book: Zheng. Wang. Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations. 2012. 44. 9780231520164.
  146. Book: Westmoreland. Perry. Life's Wonders. 2019. 9781644268346.
  147. Book: Loh. Shen Yeow. Descendants of the Bird Hunters of Old China. 2019. 9781543755633.
  148. Book: Shaughnessy. Edward. Unearthing the Changes: Recently Discovered Manuscripts of the Yi Jing (I Ching) and Related Texts. 2014. 19. 9780231533300.
  149. Book: Zhang. Qizhi. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. 2015. 92. 9783662464823.
  150. Book: McLeod. Alexus. Astronomy in the Ancient World: Early and Modern Views on Celestial Events. 2016. 85. 9783319236001.
  151. Book: Tse. Wicky. The Collapse of China's Later Han Dynasty, 25-220 AD: The Northwest Borderlands and the Edge of Empire. 2018. 9781315532318.
  152. Book: Pei. Kuangyi. Gale Researcher Guide for: The Three Kingdoms and the Jin. 2018. 9781535865692.
  153. Book: Dai. Meike. Wei. Weisen. 幻化之龍:兩千年中國歷史變遷中的孔子. 2016. 122. 9789629966485.
  154. Book: Fu. Chonglan. Cao. Wenming. Introduction to the Urban History of China. 2019. 123. 9789811382079.
  155. Book: Zhou. Jiarong. 香港通史:遠古至清代. 2017. 41. 9789620441660.
  156. Book: Mai. Jinsheng. 近代中國海防史新論. 2017. 254. 9789620440472.
  157. Book: Wang. Eugene. Shaping the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist Visual Culture in Medieval China. 2005. 13. 9780295984629.
  158. Book: Shen. Songying. 闲读中国史. 2016. 9787210081692.
  159. Book: McMahon. Keith. Women Shall Not Rule: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao. 2013. 123. 9781442222908.
  160. Book: Fan. Ru. Pan. Xinghui. 中外歷史大事年表. 2010. 213. 9789628931736.
  161. Book: Swartz. Wendy. Yang. Lu. Jessy. Choo. Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. 2014. 30. 9780231531009.
  162. Book: Whiteman. Stephen. Where Dragon Veins Meet: The Kangxi Emperor and His Estate at Rehe. 2019. 225. 9780295745817.
  163. Book: Duthie. Torquil. Man'yōshū and the Imperial Imagination in Early Japan. 2014. 27. 9789004264540.
  164. Book: Steinhardt. Nancy. Chinese Architecture in an Age of Turmoil, 200-600. 2014. 28. 9780824838232.
  165. Book: Xiao. Shiyou. 後秦政治外交史簡論五篇. 2013. 69. 9789881278982.
  166. Book: Adamek. Piotr. Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values. 2017. 344. 9781351565219.
  167. Book: Zhao. Yonghong. 河西走廊藏文化史要. 2010. 9787542117083.
  168. Book: Goodrich. Luther. A Short History of the Chinese People. 2002. 85. 9780486424880.
  169. Book: Qin. Dashu. Yuan. Jian. 2011:古丝绸之路. 2013. 153. 9789813206076.
  170. Book: Wan. Guoding. Wan. Sinian. Chen. Mengjia. 中国历史纪年表(精). 2018. 9787101133172.
  171. Book: Zhang. Qizhi. Wang. Zijin. Fang. Guanghua. 秦汉魏晋南北朝史. 2002. 335. 9789571128702.
  172. Book: Hong. Yuan. The Sinitic Civilization Book II: A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology, Bronzeware, Astronomy, Divination, Calendar and the Annals. 2018. 9781532058318.
  173. Book: Tian. Hengyu. Infamous Chinese Emperors: Tales of Tyranny and Misrule. 2018. 180. 9789812299314.
  174. Book: Wang. Zhen'guo. Chen. Ping. Xie. Peiping. History and Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine. 1999. 94. 9787030065674.
  175. Book: Fairbank. John. Goldman. Merle. China: A New History. 2006. 73. 9780674018280.
  176. Book: Spring. Peter. Great Walls and Linear Barriers. 2015. 211. 9781473854048.
  177. Book: Tan. Zhongchi. 长沙通史(古代卷). 2013. 9787999009009.
  178. Book: Kroll. Paul. Reading Medieval Chinese Poetry: Text, Context, and Culture. 2014. 36. 9789004282063.
  179. Book: Nadeau. Randall. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. 2012. 147. 9781444361971.
  180. Book: Katz. Paul. Demon Hordes and Burning Boats: The Cult of Marshal Wen in Late Imperial Chekiang. 1995. 79. 9781438408484.
  181. Book: Cai. Zong-qi. How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology. 2007. 152. 9780231511889.
  182. Book: Lee. Mosol. Ancient History of the Manchuria. 2013. 115. 9781483667676.
  183. Book: Adamek. Piotr. A Good Son is Sad if He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values. 2017. 348. 9781351565219.
  184. Book: Su. Muzi. 那些顛覆時代的女人. 2006.
  185. Book: Standen. Naomi. Unbounded Loyalty: Frontier Crossings in Liao China. 2007. 1. 9780824829834.
  186. Book: Schaeffer. Kurtis. Kapstein. Matthew. Tuttle. Gray. Sources of Tibetan Tradition. 2013. 338. 9780231509787.
  187. Book: Liu. Lydia. Karl. Rebecca. Ko. Dorothy. The Birth of Chinese Feminism: Essential Texts in Transnational Theory. 2013. 164. 9780231533263.
  188. Book: Kuhn. Dieter. The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China. 2011. 9780674244344.
  189. Book: Winchester. Simon. Bomb, Book and Compass: Joseph Needham and the Great Secrets of China. 2008. 9780141889894.
  190. Book: Bai. Zhide. 大动乱:中古时代:五代辽宋夏金. 2017. 9787505141254.
  191. Book: Lee. Lily. Wiles. Sue. Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang Through Ming, 618-1644. 2014. xxi. 9780765643162.
  192. Book: Gong. Xianzong. 臺灣文學與中國童謠. 2014. 172. 9789577398598.
  193. Book: Wu. Jiang. Chia. Lucille. Spreading Buddha's Word in East Asia: The Formation and Transformation of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. 2015. 175. 9780231540193.
  194. Book: Feng. Xianzhi. 中国历代重大战争详解:隋唐战争史. 2006. 9787999031499.
  195. Book: Thurgood. Graham. LaPolla. Randy. The Sino-Tibetan Languages. 2003. 7. 9780700711291.
  196. Book: Szonyi. Michael. A Companion to Chinese History. 2017. 130. 9781118624609.
  197. Book: Huang. Chunyi. 北宋的外戚與政治. 2016. 3. 9789577399953.
  198. Book: McMahon. Keith. Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing. 2016. 24. 9781442255029.
  199. Book: Tuttle. Gray. Schaeffer. Kurtis. The Tibetan History Reader. 2013. 562. 9780231513548.
  200. Book: Kessler. Adam. Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road. 2012. 77. 978-9004218598.
  201. Book: Simon. Karla. Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient Times to the "New Reform Era". 2013. 40. 9780190297640.
  202. Book: Baumer. Christoph. The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols. 2016. 9781838609399.
  203. Book: Chen. Anfeng. 甲申詩史:吳梅村書寫的一六四四. 2014. 2. 9789888310111.
  204. Book: Zhong. Guochang. 天崩地裂時代下的皇族. 2019. 3. 9789620773419.
  205. Book: Lee. Ji-young. China's Hegemony: Four Hundred Years of East Asian Domination. 2016. 236. 9780231542173.
  206. Book: Forêt. Philippe. Mapping Chengde: The Qing Landscape Enterprise. 2000. 13. 9780824822934.