List of doping cases in cycling explained

The following is an incomplete list of doping cases and recurring accusations of doping in professional cycling, where doping means "use of physiological substances or abnormal method to obtain an artificial increase of performance." It is neither a list of shame nor a list of illegality, as the first laws were not passed until 1965 and their implementation is an ongoing developing process. Thus the list contains doping incidents, those who have tested positive for illegal performance-enhancing drugs, prohibited recreational drugs or have been suspended by a sports governing body for failure to submit to mandatory drug testing. It also contains and clarifies cases where subsequent evidence and explanation has shown the parties to be innocent of illegal practice.

In 1963, the Council of Europe gave the following definition of doping:

"Doping is the administration to a normal subject in any possible way of a foreign agent or abnormal quantities of physiological substances with the sole purpose of increasing artificially and in an unfair manner the performance of the subject participating in a contest."[1]

The International Olympic Committee slightly modified this, and adopted this definition:

"The administration of or use by a competing athlete of any substance foreign to the body or any physiologic substance taken in abnormal quantity or taken by an abnormal route of entry into the body with the sole intention of increasing in an artificial and unfair manner his/her performance in competition. When necessity demands medical treatment with any substance which, because of its nature, dosage, or application is able to boost the athlete's performance in competition in an artificial and unfair manner, this too is regarded as doping."

1880s

1886

In 1886, a Welsh cyclist is popularly reputed to have died after drinking a blend of cocaine, caffeine and strychnine, supposedly in the Bordeaux–Paris race. This was included in the 1997 International Olympic Committee study on the Historical Evolution of Doping Phenomenon, and listed as the presumed first death due to doping during a competition. The report did allow that in this period it was common practice, and not illegal.[2] This is alternatively reported as 'trimethyl" poisoning (a compound which does not actually exist).[3] However, the main Bordeaux–Paris race did not start until 1891, and the cyclist who supposedly died in 1886, Arthur Linton, actually finished second in 1896 and died a few weeks later, reportedly from a combination of drug-induced exhaustion and typhoid fever.[4] Linton was managed by the notorious Choppy Warburton - see 1896 below.[5] The story may be apocryphal.

1890s

1896

Nitroglycerine was used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks and was credited with improving riders' breathing.[10] Riders suffered hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue a New York race, saying: "I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand."[11]

1897

Warburton was banned from the sport after unproven claims of massive doping in the 1896 Bordeaux–Paris. His activities may have contributed to the early deaths of Arthur Linton, Tom Linton and Jimmy Michael.[12] [13]

1900s

1904

1910s

1911

1920s

1924

1930s

1930

The acceptance of drug-taking in the Tour de France was so complete by 1930 that the rule book, distributed by Henri Desgrange, reminded riders that drugs would not be provided by the organisers.[19]

1940s

1949

1950s

1955

1956

1958

1959

1960s

1960

1962

The Wiel's-Groene Leeuw affair – At the stage from Luchon to Carcassonne of the 1962 Tour de France, twelve riders fell ill and said 'bad fish' was the cause. Tour doctor Pierre Dumas realized they had all been given the same drug by the same soigneur.[17] Hans Junkermann of Germany had been ill overnight so the start was delayed by 10 minutes, but at the first hill he got off his bike and sat by the roadside, telling onlookers "I ate bad fish at the hotel last night."[34] Eleven other riders abandoned the Tour that day, including the former leader, Willy Schroeders, the 1960 winner Gastone Nencini and a future leader, Karl-Heinz Kunde. Jacques Goddet wrote that he suspected doping but nothing was proven - other than that none of the hotels had served fish the previous night.

1964

France passed its first anti-doping law in November 1964.[35]

1965

Performance-enhancing drugs became illegal on 1 June 1965. The first riders to be caught were four amateurs, three Spanish (Luis Santamarina, Canet and Usamentiaga) and one Briton (Ken Hill), who were thrown out of the Milk Race when they tested positive for amphetamines after Professor Arnold Beckett first applied sensitive gas chromatographic techniques to monitor drug abuse.[3] [17] [40]

1966

On 29 July testing began at the Tour de France. Raymond Poulidor was the first rider to be tested in the Tour at the end of a stage to Bordeaux. He said "I was strolling down the corridor in ordinary clothes when I came across two guys who asked if I was a rider. They made me go into a room, I pissed into some bottles and they closed them without sealing them. Then they took my name, my date of birth, without asking for anything to check my identity. I could have been anyone, and they could have done anything they liked with the bottles."[42] The next morning, on the way to the Pyrenees, the riders climbed off, began walking and shouting protests.[43]

1967

1968

1969

1970s

1972

1973

1974

In 1974, an advance in testing caught 13 prominent riders including Herman Van Springel.

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

During the 1979 Tour de France, the leader of the mountains classification Giovanni Battaglin tested positive for doping in stage 13. He was penalized by 10 minutes in the general classification, lost the points that he earned in stage 13 and received 10 penalty points in the mountains classification.[69] Battaglin was still able to win the mountains classification.

Frans Van Looy and Gilbert Chaumaz also tested positive for doping during the Tour.[70] After the Tour de France had finished, Joop Zoetemelk was found to have used doping, which he confessed later. Zoetemelk was penalized by 10 minutes in the general classification, but kept his second place.[71]

1980s

1980

1982

1983

1984

Systematic blood doping at the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles. The U.S. cycling team's successes were coloured by revelations that riders had blood transfusions before their events, a practice known as blood-doping. The transfusions were to increase red blood cells in riders' blood. That would take more oxygen to their muscles. They received the blood of others with similar blood types.[89] The practice, instigated by national coach Eddie Borysewicz, was not against Olympic rules although Games medical guidelines discouraged it. Borysewicz and a colleague, Ed Burke, set up a clinic in a Los Angeles motel room and four of the seven athletes who had transfusions won medals.[90] The U.S. federation banned blood-doping in January 1985. Borysewicz and Burke were fined a month's pay. Mike Fraysse, a former president of the federation, was demoted from first to third vice-president.[91]

Riders who received transfusions included Steve Hegg, who won a gold and a silver, and Rebecca Twigg, Pat McDonough and Leonard Nitz who all won silver medals. The others who received transfusions were John Beckman, Mark Whitehead and Brent Emery. The rest of the team had refused.[89]

1986

1987

1988

The emergence of EPO - In the late 1980s a recombinant drug created for people suffering from kidney failure became a substance abused by athletes seeking enhanced stamina and performance. The drug is recombinant erythropoietin, known as EPO, which was developed by the Amgen company. Recombinant EPO is a bio-manufactured copy of a hormone normally produced in the kidney and was not detectable by any test at the time.[97]

EPO stimulates the bone marrow in order to increase red blood cell production and thus the body's ability to carry oxygen. A study of 15 Swedish athletes by the Stockholm Institute of Gymnastics and Sports found an improvement of nearly 10 percent in aerobic performance. "Average" red blood cell volume of the population at sea level is about 45% red blood cells. About 5% of the population has less than 40% red blood cell, which is defined as "anemia" and 5% of the population, including many world class athletes, have a natural red blood cells volume of 50%... 1% of the population has 54% red blood cell volume.

The increased thickness of the blood (above 70% red blood cells) increases the risk of blood clotting which can block blood vessels causing a heart attack or stroke, especially in the middle of the night when the heart's rate is lowest. Doctors and blood specialists concluded that the drug could have been implicated in the deaths of as many as 18 European professional bicycle racers between 1987 and 1991. One of them was Johannes Draaijer, a 27-year-old Dutch rider who finished 130th in the 1989 Tour de France, and died from a heart attack in February 1990.[97] Although the autopsy did not specify the cause of death, Draaijer's wife later told the German news magazine Der Spiegel that her husband became sick after using EPO.[97] [98] [99] [100]

1989

1990s

1990

The PDM Affair, In November 1997, Cyclingnews.com reported about an inquiry that had just been made public in The Netherlands.[108] This inquiry appeared to reveal doping in the PDM cycling team. The doctor of the team from between 1990 and 1991 was Wim Sanders who was the centre of the investigation which was reported to have been initiated when the General Manager of the team, Manfred Krikke, called the FIOD (Fiscal Information and Investigation Service) to investigate the medical business of the team. It was said that Wim Sanders supplied anabolic steroids and EPO to the team and was responsible for the "intralipid affair" of the 1991 Tour de France,[108] when the entire team withdrew due to what was reported at the time as food poisoning.[109] In a 2008 TV documentary;[110] team members and team doctor Wim Sanders explain how the cause was in fact careless storage of Intralipid, a nutritional aid with which the team members had been injected.[111]

According to cyclingnews.com, 1990 was the height of the drug taking in the team and during this year, two riders had to stop with acute heart problems;[108] whether this refers to stopping with professional cycling or performance-enhancing drugs is unclear. Team manager Gisbers denied any knowledge of doping in the team.[111]

1991

PDM. Some teams used sophisticated recovery techniques whereby riders were put on a drip during the night and fed nutrients such as Vitamin B12. This practice was blamed when the entire PDM team went down with a fever on the 10th Stage of the Tour de France. PDM management blamed a virus although only riders were infected. Ten days later a press release stated that the team had used recovery substances which were past their sell-by date.[17]

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

The Telekom Affair – In May 2007, several former riders admitted to using banned substances (including EPO) while riding for the team in the mid-1990s, including Erik Zabel, Rolf Aldag, Brian Holm, Bjarne Riis,[150] Bert Dietz, Udo Bölts and Christian Henn including the seasons in which Riis and Jan Ullrich won the Tour de France. Team doctors Andreas Schmid and Lothar Heinrich also confessed to participating and administering banned substances. The latter was Team Telekom's sporting director until 3 May 2007, when he was suspended following allegations published in former team member Jef d'Hont's book.[151]

On 25 May 2007, Riis issued a statement confessing to taking EPO, growth hormone and cortisone for five years, from 1993 to 1998, including during his victory in the 1996 Tour de France.[152] Earlier in the week, five of Riis' former teammates from Team Telekom confessed to having used banned substances during the 1990s when Riis won the Tour.[153] [154] Riis said that he bought and injected the EPO himself, and team coach Walter Godefroot turned a blind eye to the drug use on the team.[155] Riis was removed from the official record books of Tour de France,[156] but in July 2008 he was written back into the books along with additional notes about his use of doping.

1997

1998

The Festina Affair is the events that surround several doping scandals, doping investigations and confessions of riders to doping that occurred during and shortly after the 1998 Tour de France. The affair began when a large haul of doping products was found in a car of the Festina cycling team just before the start of the race, which led to a large-scale police investigation against the Festina Team, this was followed by the re-opening of a separate police investigation case into the TVM team, and a subsequent searching of many teams during the race for possession of illicit doping substances. The affair highlighted systematic doping and suspicion of a widespread network of doping in many teams of the Tour de France, and was characterised by the constant negative publicity of the cases, police searches of hotels, a spate of confessions by retired and current riders to doping, the detainment and arrest of many team personnel, protests by riders in the race, as well as mass withdrawal of several teams from the race.

1999

1999 Tour de France - In 2005 the French sports daily L'Équipe accused Lance Armstrong of using the performance-enhancing drug EPO during the race. For years, it had been impossible to detect the drug, called erythropoietin, until UCI began using a urine test for EPO in 2001. According to the newspaper, tests on 1999 urine samples were done to help scientists improve their detection methods. The newspaper said 12 samples had revealed EPO use, including six from Armstrong.[207] [208] In 2006 a UCI appointed independent lawyer, Emile Vrijman, released a report in 2006 claiming that Lance Armstrong should be cleared of any suspicion surrounding the retrospective testing of the 1999 Tour de France. Vrijman denounced the manner in which the doping laboratory in Châtenay-Malabry carried out its research, claiming that there were too many procedural and chain of custody gaps.[209] [210] The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) rejected it, calling it defamatory to WADA and its officers and employees, as well as the accredited laboratory involved.[211]

In that same year, a second French daily newspaper, Le Journal du Dimanche, reported that Spanish rider Manuel Beltrán, Danish Bo Hamburger and Colombian Joaquim Castelblanco were suspected of being among those whose frozen urine samples reportedly tested positive.[212]

2000s

2000

2001

2001 Giro d'Italia - The Giro was overshadowed by a series of scandals related to doping. Police raided the hotels of several teams during the race, uncovering a variety of banned substances. Italian Dario Frigo, who was fighting for the race lead at the time, was expelled from the race as a result.[233] The week prior to the raid saw Pascal Hervé and Riccardo Forconi expelled from the race after testing positive for EPO. Italian police carried out anti-drugs raids on a number of hotels in the town of San Remo where the participants of the race were staying. About 200 officers were involved in the raid. Police officers search the rooms of riders from all 20 teams, confiscating medicines. The organizers decided to cancel the 18th stage after second-placed Dario Frigo was sacked by Fassa Bortolo team after illegal drugs were found in his room. Frigo later admitted carrying them as security in case he needed a boost during the final stages of the race. Italian Marco Pantani was banned for six months after an insulin syringe was found in his room. On appeal the ban was lifted.[230]

2002

2003

Oil for Drugs was an Italian doping case against doctor Carlo Santuccione and a number of accomplices, started in 2003. He was accused of administering prohibited doping products to professional and amateur athletes, to enhance their performance as well as being involved in doping network across Italy.[277]

2004

2005

2006

2006 Tour de France was marred by doping scandals. Prior to the tour, numerous riders - including the two favourites Jan Ullrich and Ivan Basso - were expelled from the Tour due to their link with the Operación Puerto doping case. After the end of the race, the apparent winner Floyd Landis was found to have failed a drug test after stage 17; Landis contested the result and demanded arbitration. On 20 September 2007 Landis was found guilty and suspended retroactive to 30 January 2007 and stripped of the 2006 Tour de France title making Óscar Pereiro the title holder.[320]

Operación Puerto doping case (meaning Operation Mountain Pass) is a Spanish doping case against doctor Eufemiano Fuentes and a number of accomplices, started in May 2006. He is accused of administering prohibited doping products to 200 professional athletes, to enhance their performance. Tour de France's favorites Jan Ullrich and Ivan Basso were expelled from the Tour de France before the race started.

2007

Positive doping tests

DateCyclistBanned substanceReference
4 MarchhCGWeb site: Giuseppe Muraglia positive for hCG . Latest Cycling News . autobus.cyclingnews.com. June 11, 2007 . Gregor . Brown . June 4, 2015.
24 AprilNandroloneWeb site: Peña positive for nandrolone . First Edition Cycling News . May 30, 2007 . Ben . Abrahams . Greg . Johnson . Paul . Verkuylen . June 4, 2015.
8 JuneTestosteronehttps://web.archive.org/web/20080321234911/http://www.velonews.com/article/12808
19 JulyTestosteronehttp://autobus.cyclingnews.com/road/2007/tour07/news/?id=/news/2007/jul07/jul25news5
21 JulyHomologous transfusionhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512043305/http://www.velonews.com/article/12910
24 JulyEPOhttp://autobus.cyclingnews.com/news.php?id=news/2007/jul07/jul31news
1 AugustHomologous transfusionhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512042504/http://www.velonews.com/article/13063
24 DecemberEPOhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090704043225/http://www.tour09.nl/nederlanders/672/dekker-betrapt-op-gebruik-epo.html

Doping cases

2007 Tour de France - The event was affected by a series of scandals and speculations related to doping. By the end of the Tour, two cyclists were dismissed for testing positive, the wearer of the yellow jersey, Michael Rasmussen was voluntarily retired by his team for lying about his whereabouts and missing doping tests. A fourth rider was confirmed to having used doping while in a training session prior to the 2007 Tour and a fifth rider tested positive late in the race, with his result being officially announced just after the end of the Tour. Along the way, two teams contesting the competition were asked to withdraw due to positive tests of at least one member.

2008

Positive doping tests

DateCyclistBanned substanceReference
3 MarchTestosterone[345]
11 AprilStanozolol (steroid)[346]
28 JuneEPO[347]
29 JuneEPO
5 JulyEPO[348]
5 JulyFenfluramine[349]
8 JulyEPO[350]
8 JulyMIRCERA[351]
23 JulyMIRCERA[352]
24 Julyheptaminol[353]
31 JulyEPO[354]
7 OctoberMIRCERA[355]
7 OctoberMIRCERA
12 OctoberMIRCERA[356]

Doping cases

2009

2010s

2010

2011

2012

Sanctions after investigations

CaseBanned substances/methodsSanctionReference
USADA Cycling investigationUse, possession, trafficking, administration of prohibited substances and methods and assisting, encouraging, aiding, abetting, covering up or any other type of complicity involving one or more anti-doping rule violations and/or attempted anti-doping rule violations. Life ban + loss of results from 1 August 1998 – 2012[457]
USADA's U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team InvestigationCortisone, EPO, hGH, Testosterone, Tetracosactide6 months + loss of results[458]
USADA's U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team Investigation6 months + loss of results[459]
USADA Cycling investigationLife ban
USADA's U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team InvestigationBlood transfusions, EPO, hGH, Testosterone6 months + loss of results[460]
USADA's U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team InvestigationActovegin, Blood transfusions, EPO, Testosterone6 months + loss of results[461]
USADA Cycling investigationLife ban
Working with banned doctor Michele Ferrari3 months[462]
USADA's U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team InvestigationActovegin, Cortisone, EPO, hGH, Testosterone, Tetracosactide6 months + loss of results[463]
Working with banned doctor Michele Ferrari3 months[464]
EPO, hGH, Testosterone6 months[465]
USADA's U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team InvestigationEPO, hGH, Testosterone6 months + loss of results[466]

Admissions of doping in the past

CyclistBanned substances/methodsReference
Cortisone, EPO, hGH, Testosterone, Tetracosactide
Amphetamine, Cocaine, EPO, hGH, Testosterone[467]
Blood transfusions, EPO, hGH, Testosterone
[468]
EPO
EPO
EPO, Cortisone[469]
Actovegin, Blood transfusions, EPO, Testosterone
[470]
Actovegin, Cortisone, EPO, hGH, Testosterone, Tetracosactide
Actovegin, Cortisone, EPO[471] [472]
EPO, hGH, Testosterone
EPO, hGH, Testosterone

Positive doping tests

DateCyclistEventRaceBanned substanceSanctionReference
21 February RoadEPO2 years
21 FebruaryRoadOut of competition test (retested in 2013)EPO4 years (second violation)[473]
21 FebruaryEPO2 years
24 February2 years
25 February RoadRutas de AméricaEPO2 years
4 MarchMTB (Amateur)Argus Mountain Bike RaceMethamphetamine2 years[474]
22 MarchRoadOut of competition testEPO2 years
1 AprilBMXUS BMX National ChampionshipsMethylhexaneamine6 months[475]
5 AprilExogenous Steroid2 years
10 AprilRoadOut of competition testExogenous Steroids2 years
15 April (Age 43)Road (Masters)Parkland Circuit - BBPAMethylhexaneamine6 months[476]
15 AprilFenoterol3 months
24 AprilRoadTour of TurkeyEPO2 years[477]
1 MayRoadRund um den FinanzplatzFailed to submit to sample collection16 months
6 MayRoadGroßer Preis Sportland Niederösterreich PoysdorfAmphetamine2 years[478] [479]
19 MayRoad (Amateur)Methylhexaneamine6 months
20 May (Age 45)Road (Amateur)Gran Fondo New YorkEPO2 years[480]
20 May (Age 49)Road (Amateur)Gran Fondo New YorkEPO2 years[481]
24 MayRoadTour of TrakyaNorpseudoephedrine4 years (second violation)[482]
26 MayPara-cyclingUCI Para-cycling Road World Cup in RomeTuaminoheptane3 months[483] [484]
30 MayRoadTour de LuxembourgProbenecid2 years
11 JuneRoadStanozolol2 years
12 June RoadOut of competition testEPO2 years[485]
14 July RoadTour de FranceXipamide1 year[486]
24 July Track2012 Summer OlympicsTestosterone2 years
8 August RoadVuelta Ciclista a LeónMethylphenidate2 years
11 AugustRoadMemorial Henryk LasakAndrostatrienedione2 years
25 AugustRoadCoppa PlacciNorpseudoephedrine1 year
29 AugustMTBEPO2 year
11 SeptemberRoadTour of BulgariaAmphetamine4 years
21 September RoadOut of competition testEPO2 years
30 SeptemberMTBIXSGerman Downhill Cup Cocaine1 year
30 SeptemberUSA Cycling Mountain Bike 24-Hour National ChampionshipsModafinil18 months[487]
7 OctoberRoadGrand Prix Chantal BiyaStanozolol, T/E Ratio˃4, 19-Norandrosterone4 years
21 October + 18 November TrackUEC European Track ChampionshipsTuaminoheptane18 months
23 DecemberRoadVuelta Ciclista a Costa RicaGW5015162 years
23 OctoberRoadTour du FasoNiketamide2 years
20 DecemberRoadVuelta Ciclista a Costa RicaClostebol1 year
25 DecemberRoadVuelta Ciclista a Costa RicaGW5015162 years
27 & 29 DecemberRoadVuelta Ciclista a Costa RicaGW5015162 years
28 DecemberRoadVuelta Ciclista a Costa RicaGW50151612 years

Doping cases

2013

Admissions of doping in the past

CyclistBanned substances/methodsReference
Blood transfusions, Cortisone, EPO, hGH, Testosterone[546]
Blood transfusions, Cortisone, EPO
Cortisone, EPO, Testosterone[547]
Blood transfusions, EPO[548]
EPO
EPO[549]
EPO[550]
Cortisone, EPO[551] [552]
EPO[553]
EPO
Blood transfusions, Cortisone, DHEA, EPO, hGH, IGF-1, Insulin, Testosterone[554]
Cortisone, EPO

Doping cases

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020s

2022

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Committee for Out-of-School Education, Doping of Athletes, Joint Draft Definition. 16 January 1963. Council of Europe Website. 19 April 2019.
  2. Web site: Historical Evolution of Doping Phenomenon by Lorella Vittozzi (ITA) . Ioa.org.gr . 2019-01-19 . 2019-01-20 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190120093523/http://www.ioa.org.gr/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/special-sessions-1997-37942-600-21.pdf . dead .
  3. Web site: Doping in Sport: From Strychnine to Genetic Enhancement, It's a Moving Target, by Gary I. Wadler, M.D., FACP, FACSM, FACPM, FCP. Associate Professor of Clinical Medicine, New York University School of Medicine . 2019-04-19.
  4. Web site: Synopsis of Dope: A History of Performance Enhancement in Sports from the Nineteenth Century to Today . Daniel M. . Rosen . Search.barnesandnoble.com . 2012-07-17 . 2012-10-18 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121018092803/http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Dope/Daniel-M-Rosen/e/9780313345203/?itm=3 . dead .
  5. News: Speed freaks who raced to an early grave. The Times. 5 August 2006 . London . 8 May 2010.
  6. Web site: Cheating and drugs in sport. BBC. 14 October 2003.
  7. News: "Choppy" Warburton Dead. The New York Times. 19 December 1897 .
  8. Odd, Nicholas and van der Plas, Rob (ed) (1998), Cycle History
  9. Web site: Mysterieuze brouwsels. Haan, Rob de. nl. Nusport. 25 August 2010.
  10. Novich, Max M., Abbotempo, UK, 1964
  11. Bearings, US, 24 December 1896, cited Ritchie, Andrew, Major Taylor, Bicycle Books, US, 1988
  12. Cyclers' News, 28 July 1896
  13. History Today, UK, vol 50
  14. Web site: Library Service Heritage Trail - Aberaman . Rhondda Cynon Taff . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081011051752/http://webapps.rhondda-cynon-taff.gov.uk/heritagetrail/cynon/aberaman/aberaman.htm . 2008-10-11 .
  15. Woodland, Les: Yellow Jersey Guide to the Tour de France, Yellow Jersey, London, 2007
  16. De Mondenard, Dr Jean-Pierre: Dopage, l'imposture des performances, Chiron, France, 2000
  17. Web site: Association of British Cycling Coaches (ABCC), Drugs and the Tour De France by Ramin Minovi. https://web.archive.org/web/20070627210659/http://www.abcc.co.uk/Articles/DrgsTdeF.html. dead. June 27, 2007.
  18. Web site: 1 Guardian, July 2003, Science, If this year's Tour de France is 100% clean... ...then that will certainly be a first. By Matt Seaton and David Adam. TheGuardian.com.
  19. Maso, Benji:Zweet van de Goden, Holland
  20. News: Bil Gilbert . Something Extra On The Ball . Sports Illustrated magazine. 1969-06-30 . 2012-07-17.
  21. [Nicolas Rasmussen|Rasmussen, Nicolas]
  22. News: Geoffrey Wheatcroft . Tour de farce. The Guardian . July 2001. 2012-07-17 . London.
  23. Woodland, Les Yellow Jersey Guide to the Tour de France, Yellow Jersey, London
  24. Chany, Pierre (1988) La Fabuleuse Histoire du Tour de France, Éditions La Martinière, France
  25. Web site: World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) - Registration(139961) Solucamphre . https://archive.today/20120805235752/http://www.wipo.int/ipdl/en/madrid/key.jsp?KEY=139961 . dead . 2012-08-05 . Wipo.int . 2012-07-17 .
  26. Jean-Paul Olivier, La Tragédie du Parjour : Roger Rivière (Glenat, 1992)
  27. Web site: Antwerp Gazette, 2 April 1999, Doping - Amfetamines, cortisone, hormonen en EPO. https://web.archive.org/web/20080313094048/http://www.gva.be/dossiers/-d/doping/40jaar.asp. dead. March 13, 2008.
  28. Web site: Online Medical Dictionary, Ronicol Retard . Online-medical-dictionary.org . 2012-07-17 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110614234933/http://www.online-medical-dictionary.org/Ronicol+Retard.asp?q=Ronicol+Retard . 2011-06-14 .
  29. Van Dijk, Pieter: Doping bestaat en doen we eraan, Het Vrije Volk, Holland, 13 December 1961
  30. News: Timeline: A century of drugs and the athlete . USA Today . 2007-03-01 . 2012-07-17.
  31. Dictionnaire du dopage par Jean-Pierre de Mondenard Dictionnaire du dopage
  32. Woodland, Les (1980) Dope, the use of drugs in sport, David and Charles, UK
  33. France Dimanche, France, cited Cycling, UK, 4 November 1967, p 17
  34. [Doping at the Tour de France#Wiel's affair]
  35. The Unknown Tour de France by Les Woodland, Van der Plas Publications, 2000.
  36. Cited in Les Miroirs du Tour, French television, 2003
  37. Cited L'Équipe Magazine 23 July 1994
  38. Penot, Christophe (1996): Pierre Chany, l'homme aux 50 Tours de France, Éditions Cristel, France
  39. Web site: Peter Post in 1965: "Ik gebruikte doping" (translation: Peter Post in 1965: "I used doping"). /Geschiedenis. 2007-07-15. 2009-07-29.
  40. Woodland, Les (1980), Dope, the use of drugs in sport, David and Charles, UK, p 112
  41. News: Cycling . West still hooked on adrenaline, ... Luis Santamarina blood sample positive for amphetamines . The Daily Telegraph. 2012-07-17 . London . 30 August 2004.
  42. Poulidor, Raymond: J'appartiens à le légende, L'Équipe, France, 12 July 1999
  43. Web site: La última etapa llana -- antes de los Pirineos -- fue ganada por Karstens, en Bayona . 42 . es . La Vanguardia . 1966-06-30 . 2009-09-29.
  44. Web site: BBC Inside out, Cycling . BBC . 2004-10-04 . 2012-07-17.
    • Book: William Fotheringham. Put Me Back on My Bike: In Search of Tom Simpson. Random House. New York. 2002. 0-224-06187-9.
  45. Te Fanatiek, Wielersport, Holland, undated cutting
  46. La Vanguardia (Spanish). Hemeroteca.lavanguardia.es (18 June 1968). Retrieved on 6 August 2014.
  47. Web site: Cycling Revealed, Timeline, 1969, 52nd Giro d'Italia 1969 By Barry Boyce, Merckx DQ'd . Cyclingrevealed.com . 1969-06-08 . 2012-07-17.
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  519. Web site: Matt White steps down from Orica GreenEdge after doping confession. Benson. Daniel. 13 October 2012. Cyclingnes.com. 16 July 2014.
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  522. Web site: Cycling Australia vice-president Stephen Hodge resigns after confessing to doping, insists Cadel Evans in clean . 19 October 2012. theaustralian.com.au. 13 August 2014.
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  525. Web site: "Sickened" UCI strips Armstrong of Tour wins . 22 October 2012. in.reuters.com . 13 August 2014.
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  528. Web site: McQuaid: Landis and Hamilton are far from heroes. Ryan. Barry. 23 October 2012. cyclingnews.com. 12 August 2014.
  529. Web site: Kjaergaard confesses to doping while at Chicky World and US Postal . 23 October 2012. cyclingnews.com. 12 August 2014.
  530. Web site: Steffen Kjærgaard permittert. 23 October 2012. sykling.no. 13 August 2014. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20140813220043/http://www.sykling.no/nyheter/arkivnyheterfralandevei/Sider/Steffen%20Kj%C3%A6rgaard%20permitert%202012.aspx. 13 August 2014.
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  542. Web site: ANTIDOPING: La Procura deferisce i ciclisti Michele Scarponi e Giovanni Visconti, chiesti tre mesi di squalifica. Disposti altri quattro provvedimenti . CONI. 13 August 2014.
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  552. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/nelissen-confesses-to-doping-at-rabobank Nelissen confesses to doping at Rabobank
  553. http://www.antidoping.dk/om-add/aktuelt/2013/01/michael_rasmussen_uk Michael Rasmussen
  554. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/dutch-cycling-announces-strict-new-anti-doping-policy Dutch cycling announces strict new anti-doping policy
  555. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/anti-doping-agencies-refuse-to-join-uci-independent-commission Anti-Doping agencies refuse to join UCI Independent Commission
  556. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/armstrong-stripped-of-bronze-medal-from-sydney-olympics Armstrong stripped of bronze medal from Sydney Olympics
  557. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/doping-was-a-way-of-life-at-rabobank-says-thomas-dekker Doping was a way of life at Rabobank, says Thomas Dekker
  558. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/hoste-under-investigation-for-biological-passport-violation Hoste under investigation for biological passport violation
  559. News: Michael Rasmussen confesses to 12 years of doping. CyclingNews. Future Publishing Limited. 31 January 2013. 31 January 2013.
  560. News: Former Dutch pro cyclist Michael Boogerd admits doping for a decade . 2013-08-19 . London . The Guardian . 6 March 2013.
  561. Web site: US Cycling Athlete, Rogers, Accepts Sanction For Anti-Doping Rule Violation. 27 November 2013. usada.org. USADA. 12 August 2014.
  562. Web site: US Cycling Athlete, Pol Rodriguez, Accepts Sanction For Violation. 19 April 2013. usada.org. USADA. 12 August 2014.
  563. Web site: Rolf Sørensen admits to doping in the 1990s. Cyclingnews.com. 18 March 2013. 10 October 2014.
  564. http://velonews.competitor.com/2013/05/news/lampres-miguel-ubeto-suspended-for-gw1516-sulfone_286846 Lampre's Miguel Ubeto suspended for GW1516 sulfone
  565. http://www.cyclingquotes.com/news/ubeto_makes_public_apology_after_positive_test/ Ubeto makes public apology after positive test
  566. CQ Ranking: Miguel Ubeto, cqranking.com
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  568. News: Sylvain Georges positive for Heptaminol. Cyclingnews.com. Future plc. 15 May 2013. 3 May 2015.
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  571. Web site: Archived copy . 2014-07-12 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140715214800/http://www.uci.ch/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTU3Mjg&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=Nzk5OTY&LangId=1 . 2014-07-15 .
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  573. News: Tour of Turkey winner Mustafa Sayar tests positive for EPO. 15 July 2013 . 2013-08-19.
  574. Web site: US Cycling Athlete, Marte, Accepts Sanction For Anti-Doping Rule Violation. 3 February 2014. usada.org . USADA. 12 August 2014.
  575. News: Cipollini, Livingston among 1998 Tour riders positive for EPO . 2013-08-19 . 2013-07-28 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130728091214/http://velonews.competitor.com/2013/07/news/pantini-ullrich-among-1998-tour-riders-positive-for-epo_296750 . dead .
  576. News: French Senate releases positive EPO cases from 1998 Tour de France . 2013-08-19 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130822071924/http://m.cyclingnews.com/news/french-senate-releases-positive-epo-cases-from-1998-tour-de-france . 2013-08-22 .
  577. Web site: O'Grady, Durand admit to EPO use . 24 July 2013 . VeloNews.com . 21 July 2014 . 23 July 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140723065750/http://velonews.competitor.com/2013/07/news/ogrady-durand-admit-to-epo-use_296840 . dead .
  578. Web site: Stuart O'Grady retires. 23 July 2013. The Sidney Morning Herald . 21 July 2014.
  579. Web site: Stuart O'Grady reveals retirement plan after signing one-year contract extension . Homefray. Reece. 5 June 2013. Adelaide Now. 21 July 2014.
  580. Web site: US Cycling Athlete, Robertson, Accepts Sanction For Anti-Doping Rule Violation. 8 May 2014. USADA. 12 August 2014.
  581. Web site: US Cycling Athlete, LeDuc, Accepts Sanction For Anti-Doping Rule Violation. 30 December 2013. usada.org . USADA. 12 August 2014.
  582. Web site: US Cycling Athlete, Baker, Accepts Sanction for Anti-Doping Rule Violation. 24 January 2014. usada.org. USADA. 12 August 2014.
  583. News: Ciclismo, Ballan: due anni di squalifica per manipolazione del sangue. Carriera finita. 17 January 2014. La Gazzetta dello Sport. 16 July 2014.
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  585. News: Orica-GreenEDGE South African cyclist Daryl Impey fails drugs test. Guinness. Rupert. 2 July 2014. The Sydney Morning Herald. 22 July 2014.
  586. News: Daryl Impey: South African cleared of doping charges. BBC Sports. BBC. 29 August 2014. 11 September 2014.
  587. Web site: Tribunal Arbitral du Sport Court of Arbitration for Sport MEDIA RELEASE CYCLING - DOPING (HGH) EIGHT YEAR SUSPENSION IMPOSED ON PATRICK SINKEWITZ. 24 February 2012. tas-cas.org. Court of Arbitration for Sport. 21 July 2014. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20140228060114/http://www.tas-cas.org/d2wfiles/document/7392/5048/0/Media20Release20%28English%2920285720.pdf. 28 February 2014.
  588. Web site: US Cycling Athlete, Loader, Accepts Sanction for Anti-Doping Rule Violation. 16 July 2014. usada.org. USADA. 12 August 2014.
  589. Web site: Paolo Savoldelli banned for six months. 30 May 2014. cyclingnews.com. Cycling News. 22 July 2014.
  590. Web site: Kreuziger denies blood passport abnormalities, pulled from Tour de France squad. Benson. Daniel. 28 June 2014. cyclingnews.com. Cycling News. 22 July 2014.
  591. News: Kreuziger cleared by Czech Olympic Committee. Cyclingnews.com. Future plc. 22 September 2014. 22 September 2014.
  592. Stephen Farrand: WADA and UCI to appeal Kreuziger's Biological Passport verdict, cyclingnews.com, 23 October 2014
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  594. News: UCI and WADA drop biopassport case against Kreuziger. Cyclingnews.com. Future plc. 5 June 2015. 5 June 2015.
  595. Web site: Dutch cyclists admit buying EPO for infamous 1998 Tour de France. 11 July 2014. The Amsterdam Herald. 22 July 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140809164557/http://www.amsterdamherald.com/index.php/rss/1212-20140711-dutch-cyclists-admit-buying-epo-1998-tour-de-france. 9 August 2014. usurped.
  596. News: BBC Sport - Team Sky's Jonathan Tiernan-Locke gets two-year doping ban. BBC Sport. 17 July 2014 . 10 October 2014.
  597. Web site: UCI Doping Suspensions . UCI . UCI.ch . 19 July 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140715214800/http://www.uci.ch/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTU3Mjg&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=Nzk5OTY&LangId=1 . 15 July 2014 .
  598. Web site: Denis Menchov given two-year doping ban. 12 July 2014. Cycling Weekly. Nigel Wynn .
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  600. http://www.sports.ru/others/cycle-racing/1022176448.html&usg=ALkJrhjSM0HBwTspWVBnps57nJlc-Ne9tg Двукратный призер Игр-2012 Ольга Забелинская сдала положительный допинг-тест
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  602. News: Valentin Iglinskiy sacked by Astana after positive test. Cyclingnews.com. Future plc. 10 September 2014. 10 September 2014.
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  604. News: Maxim Iglinskiy provisionally suspended for EPO. Cycling News. cyclingnews.com. 1 October 2014. 1 October 2014.
  605. Web site: Brazilian cycling champion Marcia Fernandes banned for 2 years after failing doping test. October 30, 2014.
  606. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/santambrogio-tests-positive-for-testosterone-during-epo-ban Santambrogio tests positive for testosterone during EPO ban
  607. Stephen Farrand: Ulissi given nine-month ban for Salbutamol positive, cyclingnews.com, 19 January 2015
  608. Daniel Benson & Sadhbh O'Shea: Leinders handed lifetime ban by USADA for doping offences, cyclingnews.com 22 January 2015
  609. USADA: Pro Cycling Team Rabobank Board Member and Chief Team Doctor, Leinders, Receives Lifetime Ban for Multiple Anti-Doping Rule Violations, usada.org, 22 January 2015
  610. Daniel Benson: UCI suspends Zorzoli from anti-doping work, cyclingnews.com 22 January 2015
  611. UCI: UCI Statement on Lloyd Mondory , uci.ch, 10 March 2015
  612. http://velonews.competitor.com/2015/03/news/ag2rs-lloyd-mondory-positive-epo_362729 Ag2r's Lloyd Mondory positive for EPO
  613. News: Hichem Chaâbane contrôlé positif. TSA. Entrecom. 23 April 2015. 24 April 2015. fr. Mourad Zemmouri. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20150428064624/http://www.tsa-algerie.com/20150423/hichem-chaabane-controle-positif/. 28 April 2015.
  614. News: RusVelo's Ignatenko, Southeast's Carretero test positive for banned substances. VeloNews. Competitor Group, Inc.. 9 June 2015. 10 June 2015. Caley Fretz.
  615. News: Appollonio provisionally suspended for EPO. Cyclingnews.com. Immediate Media Company. 30 June 2015. 30 June 2015.
  616. http://velonews.competitor.com/2015/06/news/nicki-sorensen-admits-to-doping-in-early-part-of-career_374768 Nicki Sorensen admits to doping in early part of career
  617. Jan M. Olsen: Anti-doping report: Riis knew about drugs on cycling team, 23 June 2013
  618. Stephen Farrand: Anti-Doping Denmark report reveals widespread doping under Riis at CSC, cyclingnews.com, 24 June 2015
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  620. Morten Bjerregaard, Ronni Burkal Nielsen: Afsløret: Her er det danske cykelholds doping-hule i Luxembourg, bt.dk, 24 June 2015
  621. Jarle Fredagsvik, Pål Marius Tingve, Per Møller Pettersen: Norsk sykkelprofil dopingtatt, dagbladet.no, 8 July 2015
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  623. Jarle Fredagsvik: Fire måneders dopingstraff for Robinson Bugge, procycling.no, 8 October 2015
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  628. http://sporten.tv2.dk/cykling/tour/2015-07-19-frank-hoej-indroemmer-brug-af-doping Frank Høj indrømmer brug af doping
  629. Associated Press: Panam: argentina y chileno dan positivo por dopaje, 20 July 2015
  630. Michael Pavitt: Wrestling medallist among four more doping cases confirmed at Toronto 2015, insidethegames.biz, 20 July 2015
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  633. http://www.tuttobiciweb.it/?page=news&cod=81719&tp=n PANAMERICANI. Anche Maria Luisa Calle positiva
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  636. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/savio-threatens-to-sue-appollonio-taborre-if-doping-positives-confirmed/ Savio threatens to sue Appollonio, Taborre if doping positives confirmed
  637. Shane Stokes: MPCC states that six member teams face auto-suspensions if repeat doping cases occur, cyclingtips.com
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  642. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cycling-doping-danielson-idUSKCN0Q80KF20150803?feedType=RSS&feedName=sportsNews Tom Danielson fails doping test
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  646. Adrienne Arsenault: Olympian Clara Hughes reveals doping infraction, CBS Canada, 6 September 2015
  647. http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/clara-hughes-reveals-1994-doping-positive/ Clara Hughes reveals 1994 doping positive
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  673. Web site: Rémy Di Gregorio fails anti-doping test for EPO during Paris-Nice - Cycling Weekly. 11 April 2018.
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  675. Web site: Denifl confesses to blood doping in police interview. Cycling. News 2019-03-03T11:06:00Z. cyclingnews.com. 3 March 2019.
  676. Web site: Preidler admits to blood extraction as doping investigation widens. Cycling. News 2019-03-04T11:12:00Z. cyclingnews.com. 4 March 2019.
  677. Web site: Vuelta a San Juan king of the mountains Zamora suspended for EPO. Cycling. News 2019-03-26T10:58:00Z. cyclingnews.com. 26 March 2019.
  678. Web site: Betsema hit with anti-doping adverse finding. Cycling. News 2019-04-05T17:00:00Z. cyclingnews.com. 5 April 2019.
  679. Web site: Ook B-staal Betsema is positief, veldrijdster blijft op non-actief . Sporza . 16 May 2019 . 16 May 2019.
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